Accountings - Comparability of Financial Statements Essay

Comparison of Fiscal Statements.

1.0 Fiscal Statements and its Significance.

In recent times, we have witnessed enormous policy reforms and recommendations being made to undertake and command the mode in which concerns carry out their accounting work. Numerous accounting misdirection and malpractices have merely added to the urgency to convey ordinances that seek to maintain a cheque on accounting processs followed by the corporate universe. The failure of companies such as Enron due to inappropriate accounting tactics stands out as a perfect illustration.

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Investors in the signifier of stockholders and stakeholders provide immense amount of capital expecting higher hereafter returns. Firms are known to fiddle with fiscal informations in order to pull prospective investors to finance their capital demands and debt riddance. Recently, Shell, one of universe biggest energy and oil bring forthing companies was accused of exaggerating oil militias to pull investings and had finally admitted to hold tampered with its fiscal informations. Therefore, proper examination of fiscal statements is necessities particularly since assorted single and concern involvements are developed mentioning information provided in these statements. States such as the US have come up with ordinances such as US GAAP1 to measure fiscal policies pursued by corporates and the format to be followed in printing fiscal statements.

States have adopt accounting processs and guidelines framed under the International Financial Reporting Standards ( IFRS ) to extinguish disagreements in fiscal analysis, better investing chances and to do fiscal information available. By 2005, all companies registered in the EU have to adhere by new accounting criterion. States such as United kingdoms have come under huge force per unit area to replace UK GAAP with the new IFRS strategy.

Investors frequently depend on assorted fiscal ratios to find when and where to put. Such complexnesss and the presence of diverse involvements groups make it indispensable to develop fiscal mechanisms that determine the fiscal wellness of a company. Companies have to print Annual Reports that summarise its fiscal position and act as a medium of information to its stockholders. An of import and important measure in finding the wellness of a company is to analysis its historical fiscal statements. These historical informations provides a image of the fiscal wellness of a concern and a roadmap sketching the way the concern is heading. The fiscal informations are covered under assorted headers such as the Balance Sheet and Income Statements. Each of these has a peculiar format and is based on the rules of fiscal ordinance model such as the GAAP.

We shall look at them briefly in the undermentioned chapter and besides look at other techniques developed due to the shortcoming some of these fiscal ratios are known to demo.

2.0 Understanding Financial Ratios

Ratio is nil but the comparing of one figure with another and is usually depicted as a per centum. Financial ratio is an analytical tool used to analyze tendencies, strength and failing of a company ‘s assets and its liabilities. Fiscal ratios are compared overtime on a twelvemonth to twelvemonth footing. The basic beginning for these ratios comes from the company ‘s fiscal statements which contains information on the assets, liabilities, net incomes and losingss and dividends accruing to its shareholders.2 The most common ratios can be classified under the undermentioned headers:

Profitability Ratios
Liquidity Ratios
Capital Structure Ratios

In the fiscal universe, houses rely on investors to raise financess for its short and long term demands. This is done by drifting portions in the stock markets or by publishing unsecured bonds or bonds ( loans ) . The financess may come in the signifier of short term, medium or long term loans. An investor will merely put if he is to the full convinced that his investing will derive higher returns/dividends. He may look at the balance sheet to analyze how much the company is deserving. Liquid is an of import standard that influences investor determinations. The company must be able to pay back its loans on clip and making so will merely raise its repute in the capital market for future adoptions. The company that relies to a great extent on borrowing its disbursals will evidently happen it hard to serve its liabilities.

Besides, client ‘s disbursement wont has a larger impact on the company ‘s gross revenues and liquidness. Purchase affects the company ‘s stock of goods which, in bend, affects its liquidness. Since stocks can non be sold in short notice, it has a direct impact on the house ‘s capableness to raise fund to finance short term debt funding. The current liabilities have to be settled in hard currency within short period of clip. The presence of big stocks will unnaturally blow up the entire current assets which may do it look as if the company has adequate resources to run into its short term liabilities.

We shall look at some popular ratios that, though enlightening, can non be used as an ideal tool for fiscal analysis. Let ‘s see how. The one-year study 2004 of The EMI Group suggests that group has current assets ( including stocks ) worth & amp ; lb ; 1107 million and current liabilities worth & A ; lb ; 1403.5 million. The attendant current ratio is 0.78:1.3 This figure suggests that the Group does non hold adequate short term resources to run into its short term demands. It has merely 78 pence to run into a lb of debt. If we deduct the stocks ( & A ; lb ; 36.4 million ) from its current assets to see its immediate liquidness, the quick ratio shows an even hapless debt funding capableness. The speedy ratio is 0.76:1.4 This figure suggests that the Group has merely 76 pence to run into every 1 lb worth of debt.5

Analyzing the consequences suggest that it would be inappropriate to trust on the current ratio as it does non explicate how much the company existent assets are readily exchangeable into hard currency in short notice. Stockss are non extremely liquid and hence must be excluded in measuring the company ‘s liquidness in the short period. Therefore, current ratio can non be used as a dependable means to do investing determinations and that it essential that we look at other ratios and their virtues and demerits to find which of these is appropriate in the capital market.

The Gross Profit Ratio is the ratio between the Gross Net income and the Gross saless Revenue. The Gross Profits is arrived at by subtracting the Cost of Gross saless from the Gross saless Revenue.6 To analyze this ratio we shall look at the Income Statement of The Sandvik Group.7 The Consolidated Income Statement suggests that the group had an Invoiced Gross saless of & A ; lb ; 4010.2 million and Cost of Gross saless bing & A ; lb ; 2742 million. The GP ratio between these two figures is 1.46:1 significance that the group is able to do 46 pence supernumerary from every & A ; lb ; 1 of gross revenues. It may look appealing but it must be noted that the Cost of Gross saless does non include other disbursals that may significantly cut down the gross profits.8 If we deduct other disbursals worth & A ; lb ; 741.9 million, the operating net incomes bead to & A ; lb ; 526.3 million. The Shareholders and the company ‘s future investing programs and its dividend policies depends on the Net Net incomes. It is arrived at by subtracting the involvement payables. The Sandvik ‘s Net Net incomes for the twelvemonth after revenue enhancement tax write-offs are tantamount to & A ; lb ; 327million.

We can see that though the Gross Profit ratio is a utile ratio it does non demo the company ‘s fiscal place and does non act upon any investing determinations. The existent true figure that affairs is the Net Net incomes after revenue enhancement. The ratio categorised under capital construction ratios are more luxuriant and descriptive. However when utilizing ratios such as geartrain and involvement screen, factor such as market construction, consumer penchant and gustatory sensation, economic systems of graduated table, merchandise type have considerable influence. For illustration, payments from debitors depends of consumer income and penchant. These factors have its affect on the current assets ( hard currency ) which will in bend affect the company ability to pay its creditors.

The points here is that though some factors can non be measured and may non hold direct effects ( market construction ) it can non be ignored. The thoughts highlighted above are really of import in executing fiscal analysis of a company. The accounting professionals have introduced techniques that are more accurate and explicable. We shall look at one such technique in the following chapter.

3.0 Improvement in appraisal of fiscal statement.

We have seen the proficient failure of assorted fiscal ratios and the trouble in utilizing them as a tool to do investing determinations. Comparing fiscal consequences from different periods has its ain drawbacks because there are no independent models to measure whether the company ‘s current consequences are good or bad. It is really of import that attention must be taken when comparing consequences between two different companies in footings of merchandises, size, market portion etc. For illustration, company A may hold a important market portion ( turnover ) compared to company B ‘s but smaller net net income due to its bigger operational costs. Such disagreements can act upon incorrect investing forms and determinations.

Another major drawback of ratio analysis is that comptrollers indulge in originative accounting techniques where ratios calculated from published fiscal statements show favorable figures. For illustration, sale and redemption understandings manipulate liquidness figures and off-balance sheet finance which distorts return on capital employed and thereby act uponing company ‘s geartrain.

It is hence indispensable that new attack to measuring fiscal statement must be devised and changed to accommodate to new market conditions. One such technique was developed by Professor Altman who devised a new technique popularly known as the Z-Score.9 The Z-Score is a statistical theoretical account that incorporates the usage of five different ratios which serve to foretell the wellness of a firm.10 The Z-Score is used to foretell bankruptcy of the concern utilizing traditional fiscal ratios and statistical method known as the Multiple Discriminant Analysis. The Z-score is considered to be 90 % accurate in calculating concern failure one twelvemonth into the hereafter and 80 per centum accurate in calculating it two old ages into the future.11

By choosing assorted fiscal ratios and using weight to each ratio it is possible to gauge the fiscal place of the company. In his survey, he analysed over 22 such fiscal ratios and selected 5 typical ratios that focused on the balance sheet and public presentation ratios. Weights were assigned by set uping appropriate coefficients to demo how each of these ratios influenced the dependent Z-Score. Altman Z-Score equation:

Z = X1 ( a ) + X2 ( B ) + X3 ( degree Celsius ) + X4 ( vitamin D ) + X5 ( vitamin E ) 12

Where,
X1 – Working Capital/Total Assets.
X2 – Retained Earning/Total Assets.
X3 – EBIT/Total Assets.13
X4 – Market Value Equity/Book Value of Entire Debt.
X5 – Sales/Total Assetss
a, B, degree Celsius, vitamin D, e are several coefficient assigned to each ratios ( X1, X2¦¦..X5 ) .
Z – Overall Z-Score.






Now, companies expand their range in the planetary market by bring forthing goods that belong to different markets. Firms engage in horizontal and perpendicular integrating to spread out their market and besides to cut down hazard by distributing their resources in different activities. It is hence unlogical to make a fiscal comparing of houses from different industry. Professor Altman overcame the job of comparing companies that specialised in different industries by changing the above equation by extinguishing certain ratios. For illustration, Ratio X5 for non-manufacturing companies. This is done because sales/total assets ratio greatly varies from industry to industry.

Z = X1 ( a ) + X2 ( B ) + X3 ( degree Celsius ) + X4 ( vitamin D )

He modified the equation for a in private held company by implementing book value of equity as a private company ‘s stocks are non publically traded. He farther devised Z Score tabular array to find a fiscal healthy company from a ill company in assorted industries. The companies in the gray country were considered misclassified.

Unhealthy
Gray Area
Healthy
Private Companies
& A ; lt ; 1.23
1.23 – 2.90
& A ; gt ; 2.90
Public Companies
& A ; lt ; 1.81
1.81 – 2.99
& A ; gt ; 2.99
Non Manufacturing Companies
& A ; lt ; 1.00
1.11 – 2.60
& A ; gt ; 2.60













The Z Score technique is deriving popularity in the fiscal universe as an efficient and accurate method to foretell fiscal wellness of a company and besides it is less likely to be manipulated as Ratio Analysis are known to be.

In the following chapter I shall concentrate on the International Financial Reporting criterion and expression at ways it can be improved to advance comparison and facilitate globalization and motion of capital.

4.0 Financial Reporting and Applications.

The International Financial Reporting Standards besides known as the International Accounting Standard are a set of accounting criterions companies must follow when explicating fiscal policies and publication of fiscal statements. In the EU, new ordinances require EU companies to follow International Accounting Standards by the twelvemonth 2005. Questions have been raised as to whether we need international criterions with monolithic motion towards free market. As Mr. Andrew Crockett puts in progresss in IT and the dominance of free market rules have underpinned government-led to market-led fiscal system¦.the period saw the outgrowth of fiscal instabilityA?14

Mr. Crockett besides emphasis on the fact that we need to develop, seek planetary credence of, and implement a set of codifications or criterions that pertain to cardinal elements of fiscal system infrastructureA? . It was felt that certain ordinances on fiscal monetary values, fiscal statements model, and accounting rules refering to domestic and transverse boundary line minutess were impeding market forces. These factors combined with the displacement towards greater financial and pecuniary prudence laid the foundation for a system that controlled capital motion across boundary lines and international criterions that improved planetary accounting rules.

The stairss taken to accomplish efficient fiscal mechanism must be able to turn to two factors – foremost, it must be able to place the most economic manner of utilising resources and secondly, it must be able to command the mode in which these resources are utilized. It forms the footing for the allotment of income among assorted claimants on the company and to convey in fiscal subject.

The major advantages of such coverage criterions are: –
It helps in poorness decrease by cut downing the hazard of fiscal crisis and their impact on the planetary hapless. It achieves significance because the range of globalization has reached about every individual state.
It helps in making investor assurance by bettering investing clime, obliteration of loopholes impacting direct and indirect investings.
Its aid by extinguishing barriers on free motion of market information and sentiments.
It assists local authoritiess to implement revenue enhancement ordinances and besides unwanted barriers to merchandise.



Despite the advantages of holding international criterions for fiscal coverage, it is rather apparent that certain factors act as a barrier to accounting criterions. For e.g. the UK banking sector has been in the head of this struggle between the international criterions and the national criterions. Let ‘s really briefly expression at two such ordinances that will hold an impact on the banking sector – the Basel II capital agreement and International Financial Reporting Standards ( IFRS ) , which apply to all companies listed in the EU.15 Basel II requires Bankss to associate their capital to hazard. It is likely to hold effects on all types of loaning to SME ‘s and big companies.

Despite the advantages in footings of better hazard direction and accurate pricing of loans, the complexness involved in exchanging will do some jobs. The eventual replacing of UK GAAP with the IFRS comes with the complexness of altering over, cost involved and bad debt commissariats. Harmonizing to an article published in the Business Money magazine by Mr. Mike Imeson, the HSBC bank incurred $ 400 million in disbursal to convey regulative alterations in accounting criterions universe over in 2003. Similar sentiments were expressed by Mr. Stephen Pegge, Lloyd TSB in this article by stating that when a concern attacks you for a loan, you wo n’t cognize for certain which statute law appliesA?.16

Sing the above statements, it is indispensable to look at national concern towards the development of an international criterion on fiscal ordinance. It is true that it will better investing chances by riddance of unwanted barriers and it is besides likely to make disbursals that may turn out as a hinderance to an already volatile and developing fiscal systems in most states. As Mr. Pegge puts in, it will make confusion in the head of investors and loaners as to what statute law applies and bureaucratic holds in apprehension and using them.

5.0 Decisions

In the preceding chapters, we have seen the importance of fiscal analysis in investing pick and determination devising. The ratio forms a really of import facet in doing fiscal picks and besides acts as a medium for companies to measure their concern public presentation. Fiscal analysis of these ratios influences the involvements of assorted groups of persons and administrations such as Individual stockholders, Employees, Managers, Directors, Governments.

Sing these involvement groups and affects on each of these entities, the demand for an international model for accounting criterion has being increasing felt. It acts as a medium of information for the investors who would measure the footing for doing farther investings and besides to see how good the company is executing. The directors stand to profit as their wage and income are straight linked to the company public presentation. The authorities ‘s policy towards economic development and demand for farther reforms are based on these fiscal analysis and fiscal statements. It forms the footing for revenue enhancements on trade and revenue enhancement benefits and freedoms.

While the importance haves been highlighted, it is besides indispensable to observe that drawbacks are non ignored. As Mr. Pegge points out at that place must be a clear apprehension of the statute laws and it must work towards cut downing costs instead than increasing it.

To reason, fiscal reforms and ordinances are an indispensable constituent in today ‘s planetary economic system. Fiscal statements must as an enlightening beginning free from uses of day of the month and figures.

Mentions and Bibliography

Chartered Institute of Management Accountant ( CIMA ) , ( 2005 Edition ) , Financial Accounting Fundamentals Paper C2.
Chartered Institute of Management Accountant ( CIMA ) , ( 2005 Edition ) , Management Accounting Fundamentals Paper C1.
Annual Report, 2004, The EMI Group.
Annual Report, 2004, The Sandvik Group.


Internet Beginnings:

The EMI Group – www.emigroup.com/financial.html
The Sandvik Group – www3.sandvik.com/pdf/annualreports/sandvik2004_eng_web.pdf
Vercor – The Global Resource for Business, Gross saless, Merger and Acquisitions www.vercoradvisor.com/articles/companyscore.html
Bank for International Settlement – www.bis.org/speeches/sp020227.htm
BusinessMoney.com – hypertext transfer protocol: //www.business-money.com/features_mike_imeson_jan05.html
Ventureline – www.ventureline.com/SampleOneIndustry.asp




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