Beneficial Effects Of Calorie Restriction Biology Essay

Over the last seven decennaries grounds from insect and animate being surveies has pointed to the limitation of Calories intake ensuing in addition in life span. These findings have led to involvement developing for a better apprehension of the molecular mechanisms of calorie limitation that bestow the wellness directed benefits and interpreting these benefits to human existences, as a agency of get the better ofing life endangering diseases and conditions for better quality of life and increase in life spans ( Koubova & A ; Gurante, 2003 ) .

Koubova and Gurante, 2003, p.313 defines calorie limitation as “ a dietetic regimen low in Calories without malnutrition ” . Therefore, in calorie limitation though energy giving nutrient consumption is minimized to indispensable demand, other required of import foods and vitamins and minerals in equal measures are provided for. Lower cholesterin degrees, lower fasting glucose degrees and blood force per unit area are considered to be biomarkers for aging, since there is a correlativity between these markers and those diseases usually associated with progressing age or ageing itself. Calorie limitation surveies in animate beings has shown to cut down these biomarkers associated with aging and therefore the keeping out of the promise for the usage of calorie limitation with the curative potency to better the intervention of diseases and conditions associated with aging to increase life span in worlds ( Brown, 2008 ) .

We will write a custom essay sample on
Beneficial Effects Of Calorie Restriction Biology Essay
or any similar topic only for you
Order now

The modern involvement in calorie limitation can be traced back to 1930s and the research of the nutritionist Clive McKay. McKay and his squad carry oning malignant neoplastic disease research discovered that terrible Calorie limitation up to 60 % ad Chlordiazepoxide degrees resulted in a mensurable addition in life span in rats. This interesting determination remained in cold storage for about three decennaries, as the findings were non found to be relevant to malignant neoplastic disease research as such. Michael Ross took up this yarn of probe in the 1960s utilizing Sprague-Dawley rats, to analyze the incidence of tumors and its age relation. The consequences of increased life span in rats caused by calorie limitation sparked involvement among geriatricians and geriatrics research. In the 1970s two groups of research probe on Calorie started, one under Roy Walford at UCLA and the other led by Edward Masoro and B.P. Yu at the University of Texas ( Sprott & A ; Austad, 2006 ) .

Walford and his squad, with peculiar accent on Richard Weindruch focused on the impact of Calories restriction on different theoretical accounts that ranged from mice to rhesus monkeys to worlds. Some of these probes continue even today and has led to general credence that Calorie limitation has turned to be the lone intercession that consequences in life span extension among mammals. The Masoro group on the other manus concentrated their work on F344 rats look intoing the physiological footing of the calorie limitation consequence, which has been farther extended by Richard McCarter at Pennsylvania State University on to the mechanism of action of calorie limitation in F344 rats and transgenic and non-transgenic C57BL/6 mice. The consequences of this research activity are a organic structure of literature on the benefits of calorie limitation in rats and mice that is non limited to mere extension of lifetime ( Sprott & A ; Austad, 2006 ) .

The organic structure of literature that has emerged from research on the good effects of calorie limitation from surveies on a scope of life existences that include yeast, flies, fish, mice and monkeys has led to the consideration that calorie limitation holds out promise for benefits in worlds excessively. Preliminary grounds gives hope to this promise. Early grounds from human surveies have indicated that calorie limitation is associated with several good markers like increased span of life, lower insulin degrees, lower organic structure temperatures, decrease in malignant tumour development and lower chromosomal harm. It is these benefits seen from calorie limitation that makes a promising medical intercession in several threatening diseases and conditions ( Cousens & A ; Rainoshek, 2008 ) .

The published survey of Eduardo Arias Vallejo is considered by several taking figures in the survey of calorie limitation as puting the footing for the benefits of calorie limitation for worlds, by analyzing good nutritionary patterns in human existences. The survey nevertheless finds unfavorable judgments in that calorie limitation was non applied, but instead followed an up and down nutritionary form in normal aged topics, guaranting that there was no weight addition. Nevertheless the findings of this survey and the grounds from other surveies conducted on animate beings in research labs and preliminary grounds from short term calorie limitation surveies on aged worlds has led to the hypothesis that in add-on to the observed wellness benefits in footings of insulin opposition, asthma, viral infections, bacterial infections, fungous infections, autoimmune upsets, degenerative arthritis, CNS inflammatory lesions, cardiac arrhythmias and hot flashes in climacteric, other countries of wellness related benefits include Alzheimer ‘s Disease, Parkinson ‘s Disease, multiple induration, shot, malignant tumours, NIDDM and cardiac conditions. This has led to involvement demonstrated among scientists in calorie limitation in these wellness related countries, with peculiar accent on some countries of deeper concern like aging, malignant neoplastic disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, bosom diseases and fleshiness or fleshy issues ( Johnson, Laub & A ; John, 2006 ) .

However, the exact mechanisms involved in Calorie limitation still remain elusive because of its complex nature that derives from its multiplicity. The multiple effects of calorie limitation that have been observed include metabolic, neuroendocrine and apoptic effects that are expresses with singular differences in the different organ systems. This comparative low apprehension on the mechanisms of the effects of calorie limitation coupled with the many of these benefits being observed merely in research lab animate beings and non in natural footings has restricted the cosmopolitan credence Calorie limitation as a portion of standard medical therapies for wellness betterment. The principle behind calorie limitation lies in calorie limitation moving as a moderating factor on reproduction while advancing endurance during times of scarceness. Calorie limitation by advancing endurance may move as a hindrance coming to assistance of worlds to supply the hope in several countries of medical benefits. For illustration in its function as advancing length of service of life, calorie limitation is believed to curtail the oxidative harm that occurs, thereby cut downing the cumulative oxidative, which is theoretically believed to be cause of aging ( Koubova & A ; Gurante, 2003 ) . Though there is limited direct grounds of the wellness benefits on worlds parallel experiences in worlds have been observed. For illustration, occupants of the Island of Okinawa in Japan consume 20 % fewer Calories and keep a healthy diet in comparing with the other parts of Japan. These occupants show extended life spans of up to 40 fold addition in age span compared to occupants in other parts of Japan. Again, the Biosphere experiment in 1990s in U.S.A affecting eight participants between the ages of 25 old ages and 67 old ages for two old ages on calorie limitation demonstrated physiological alterations that were similar to the physiological alterations in gnawers and monkeys in laboratory conditions with calorie limitation. These alterations were decrease in blood glucose, insulin, cholesterin, blood force per unit area and a more powerful immune system ( Berk, 2007 ) .

However, there is the demand for more research to take the bing mystery in calorie limitation. The multiple effects of Calorie limitation have led to several wellness and research organisations runing from the World Health Organization to malignant neoplastic disease research organisations, diabetes research organisations and neurology research organisations being involved in ongoing research activity in calorie limitation. However, among all these organisations die recognition has to be extended to the National Institute of Aging for being the innovator in research activity in calorie limitation as support for its geriatrics function ( Sprott & A ; Austad, 2006 ) .

1.2. Area to Which Calorie Restriction Extends

1.2.1. Calorie Restriction and Aging

Based on grounds from surveies the current surveies aging is non a procedure that happens on a random footing, but is controlled through a genetically-regulated web. Ripening can be decelerated by therapies like Calorie limitation that influence this genetically-regulated web ( Blagosklonny et al, 2010 ) .

Reappraisal of the presently available literature on Calorie limitation shows that it is the lone intercession that has demonstrated systematically the ability to significantly decelerate done the rate of ageing and thereby widen life span in short lived species. However, there still remains spreads in understanding the existent consequence of long term Calorie limitation in longer populating species like Primatess and worlds, though some short term and long term surveies on worlds have pointed to similar benefits. The chief country of concern with calorie limitation in worlds is posed by the deficiency of grounds from decently conducted surveies on the possible quality of life issues and side effects of long term Calorie limitation in worlds, to do it a suited intercession to retard the ripening procedure ( Dirks & A ; Leeuwenburgh, 2006 ) .

1.2.2. Calorie Restriction and Lifespan

Lifespan of populating beings have been show to be extended by pull stringsing the cellular procedures like histone acetylation, the insulin IGF-1 tract or the p53 system and calorie limitation is one such manipulative regimen. Removal of harm at the cell degree through autophagy is considered the common denominator in all the manipulative regimens. Studies affecting barm and insects have led to the designation of conserved cistrons that act to widen life span. Among such life span widening cistrons is Sirtuin 1, which is a phytogenetically conserved NAD+-dependent histone deacytelase. Sirtuin 1 has shown to increase life span in barm and insects and cut down programmed cell death in mammalian cells. This has led to the hypothesis that it is epigenetic deacetylation of histones that is the critical tract in the physiological ripening of several life beings and that by familial use of histone acetylation position it is possible to act upon cellular lifetime and through that extend the lifetime of the being. Of singular involvement from this position is that the transgenic look of Sirtuin 1 induces autophagy in mammalian cells in vitro ( Madeo, Tavernakis & A ; Kroemer, 2010 ) .

The dose-response phenomenon of hormesis is marked by low-dose stimulation and high-dose suppression. Hormesis is the overcompensation to environmental emphasis experienced by populating cells and is the adaptative response to harmful external stimulation. An external stimulation that brings about a good response is termed as mild emphasis. Calorie limitation is a stimulation that consequences in mild emphasis. Mild emphasis has shown to be able to increase lifetime and besides the opposition to more harmful emphasiss. Experiments on insects and mammals have shown considerable addition in life span through the stimulation of calorie limitation. Other disease and status related benefits have besides been observed due to the adaptative response to harmful stimuli brought approximately by calorie limitation. Life span extension through calorie limitation as observed in insects and animate beings may besides happen in worlds ( Kouda & A ; Iki, 2010 ) .

1.2.3. Calorie Restriction and Diabetes

Skriperchenko et Al, 2002, investigated the impact of calorie limitation of 1350 kcal/day on the clinical and biochemical parametric quantities of patients with type 2 diabetes over a period of two hebdomads. The probe squad found that calorie limitation in the type 2 diabetes patients resulted in a important decrease in organic structure weight, hyperglycaemia and hypercholesteremia ( Skriperchenko et al, 2002 ) . During the month of Ramadan Muslims observe fasting for 40 yearss between dawn and sundown. This chance was used to look into whether Ramadan fasting improved the metabolic control of serum fructosamine and beta hydroxybutirate in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The survey found that in patients with well-controlled or medium controlled type 2 diabetic patients ‘ Calorie limitation through Ramadan fasting resulted in decrease in serum fructosamine and does non ensue in the formation of beta hydroxybutirate ( Gustaviani et al, 2004 ) .

1.2.4. Calorie Restriction and Heart Diseases

Current cognition on bosom diseases extends to most of the hazard factors for bosom disease. Though age, sex familial make up represent three hazard factors that can non be modified there are nine other modifiable hazard factors. Of these modifiable hazard factors eight are influenced by dietetic consumption. Interventions based on diet in bosom diseases in general mark atherogenosis by act uponing, at the cellular scene, the proinflammatory procedures that cause endothelial disfunction, plaque formation and plaque rupture. The consequence of calorie limitation on hazard factors for bosom disease was evaluated by a comparing survey between persons who were practising restricted diet for six old ages with age-matched healthy persons devouring a typical American high Calorie diet. It was found that the calorie limitation group showed lower BMI and organic structure fat per centums and besides entire serum cholesterin concentrations, LDL-cholesterol concentrations, tryacylglycerol concentrations, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, C-reactive protein, platelet-derived growing factors and blood force per unit area were significantly lower, while HDL was higher. In add-on carotid artery intima-media thickness was lower in the Calorie restricted group ( De Caterina et Al, 2006 ) .

Fat loss as a consequence of negative energy balance is known to hold a positive influence on metabolic bosom disease hazard factors. Fontana et Al, 2007, compared the effects of fat loss in non-obese worlds induced through long-run calorie limitation or by enhanced energy outgo through exercising on bosom disease hazard factors. The findings of the survey show that the negative energy balance achieved through calorie limitation or exercising produced significant and similar positive influence on all the major hazard factors for bosom disease ( Fontana et al, 2007 ) .

Calorie Restriction and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Evidence emerging from recent surveies on mouse theoretical accounts indicates that calorie limitation may be a utile intercession in Alzheimer ‘s disease through its bar of starchlike beta neuropathology. Widening these surveies by a 30 % calorie limitation into Squirrel monkeys demonstrated a decrease in the AB ( 1-40 ) and AB ( 1-42 ) peptides in the temporal cerebral mantle in these monkeys in comparing to the control monkeys. In add-on, it was found that the decrease in contents of cortical AB peptide was reciprocally correlated to the SIRT 1 proteins in the same country of the encephalon. It may be utile to widen such surveies into non-human Primatess to farther measure the benefits of calorie limitation in Alzheimer ‘s disease ( Qin et al, 2006 ) .

Maswood et al 2004 evaluated the consequence of Calorie limitation in a primate theoretical account of Parkinson ‘s disease. Adult male Macaca mulatta monkeys were kept on a decreased 30 % Calorie diet for a period of six months and so treated with a neurolysin to make a hemiparkinson status. Comparison between the calorie-restricted monkeys and the control monkeys showed that the calorie-restricted monkeys demonstrated elevated degrees of locomotor activity and degrees of Dopastat and Dopastat metabolites in the striatal part. It was besides noted in the Calorie restricted monkeys that there were increased degrees of endurance of dopamine nerve cells in the substantia nigger and were capable of greater manual sleight than the control. Furthermore, it was found that the degrees of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor were besides higher in the caudate karyon of the Calorie restricted monkeys. These findings point to positive neurotrophic effects from calorie limitation in Parkinson ‘s disease ( Maswood et al, 2004 ) .

1.2.6. Calorie Restriction and Obesity/Weight Problems

Excessive Calorie consumption has the effects of fleshiness with its attach toing hazard of the development of chronic diseases. Surveies on gnawers have shown that calorie limitation without impacting the consumption of equal foods reduces the hazard of chronic diseases and lengthening span of life. Review of literature on the consequence of Calorie limitation in worlds, shows good metabolic, functional and hormonal alterations accruing from calorie limitation in both work forces and adult females. However, the precise sum of calorie limitation and the organic structure fat associated in conveying out optimum wellness benefits is still elusive and raises the possibility that calorie limitation may be harmful in persons with minimum fat sedimentations in the organic structure ( Fontana & A ; Klein, 2007 ) .

Coker et Al, 2009, investigated the consequence of weight loss from calorie limitation or exercising on hepatic and peripheral insulin opposition in corpulent human topics. They found that weight loss from exercising was more good in cut downing splanchnic fat and suppression of glucose production, while in the instance of insulin-stimulated glucose disposal both calorie limitation and exercising demonstrated similar benefits ( Coker et al, 2009 ) .

Table -1

Findingss of the Literature Review

Author & A ; Year

Type of Study

Aim

Key Findingss

Limitation/Future Work

Blagosklonny et Al, 2010

Literature Review

To measure the available literature on Calorie limitation

Aging is non a random happening, but instead the consequence of a genetically regulated web and that aging can be restricted by therapies like calorie limitation.

All current grounds on the consequence of calorie limitation on aging is basically based on short lived insects and animate beings.

Dirks & A ; Leeuwenburgh, 2006

Literature Review

To measure the available literature on Calorie limitation

Calorie limitation is the lone intercession that has systematically shown the ability to decelerate down the rate of aging in short lived species.

Lack of grounds on the consequence of calorie limitation on aging in long life species like Primatess and worlds and therefore no cognition of any possible side effects of calorie limitation on worlds.

Madeo, Tavernakis & A ; Kroemer, 2010

Literature Review

Focus on autophagy

Sirtuin 1 has shown to increase life span in barm and insects and cut down programmed cell death in mammalian cells. transgenic look of Sirtuin 1 induces autophagy in mammalian cells in vitro

Mammalian grounds of addition in lifespan limited to in vitro surveies.

Kouda & A ; Iki, 2010

Literature Review

Beneficial effects of mild emphasis through Calorie limitation

Experiments on insects and mammals have shown considerable addition in life span through the stimulation of calorie limitation. Other disease and status related benefits have besides been observed due to the adaptative response to harmful stimuli brought approximately by calorie limitation.

Lack of equal grounds of addition in life span in worlds.

Skriperchenko et Al, 2002

Experimental Study

Impact of calorie limitation of 1350 kcal/day on the clinical and biochemical parametric quantities of patients with type 2 diabetes

Calorie limitation in the type 2 diabetes patients resulted in a important decrease in organic structure weight, hyperglycaemia and hypercholesteremia

Short continuance survey. No rating of side effects.

Gustaviani et Al, 2004

Experimental Study

To look into whether Ramadan fasting improved the metabolic control of serum fructosamine and beta hydroxybutirate in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Ramadan fasting resulted in decrease in serum fructosamine and does non ensue in the formation of beta hydroxybutirate.

Not a controlled survey. Reliability limited.

De Caterina et Al, 2006

Comparative Study

To measure the consequence of calorie limitation on hazard factors for bosom disease

It was found that the calorie limitation group showed lower BMI and organic structure fat per centums and besides entire serum cholesterin concentrations, LDL-cholesterol concentrations, tryacylglycerol concentrations, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, C-reactive protein, platelet-derived growing factors and blood force per unit area were significantly lower, while HDL was higher. In add-on carotid artery intima-media thickness was lower in the Calorie restricted group

Limited controls in the survey, restricting its dependability.

Fontana et Al, 2007

Comparative survey

To compare the benefits of exercising and Calorie limitation on metabolic hazard factors for bosom disease

The negative energy balance achieved through calorie limitation or exercising produced significant and similar positive influence on all the major hazard factors for bosom disease

Small and short continuance survey. Larger survey on long term footing is required to confirm the findings of this survey

Qin et Al, 2006

Experimental Study on Squirrel Monkeys

Evaluation of the benefits of calorie limitation on Alzheimer ‘s Disease

Decrease in the AB ( 1-40 ) and AB ( 1-42 ) peptides in the temporal cerebral mantle. Decrease in contents of cortical AB peptide was reciprocally correlated to the SIRT 1 proteins in the same country of the encephalon

Further surveies in non-primates required to corroborate these findings.

Maswood et Al 2004

Experimental Study on Rhesus Monkeys

To measure the consequence of Calorie limitation in a primate theoretical account of Parkinson ‘s disease

Elevated degrees of locomotor activity and degrees of Dopastat and Dopastat metabolites in the striatal part. Increased degrees of endurance of dopamine nerve cells in the substantia nigger and were capable of greater manual sleight than the control. Levels of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor were besides higher in the caudate karyon

Still to be translated for benefits in worlds.

Fontana & A ; Klein, 2007

Literature Review

Reappraisal of literature on the consequence of Calorie limitation in worlds

Beneficial metabolic, functional and hormonal alterations accruing from calorie limitation in both work forces and adult females

No apprehension on the precise sum of calorie limitation and the organic structure fat associated in conveying out optimum wellness benefits is still elusive

Coker et Al, 2009

Investigative Study

To the consequence of weight loss from calorie limitation or exercising on hepatic and peripheral insulin opposition in corpulent human topics

Weight loss from exercising was more good in cut downing splanchnic fat and suppression of glucose production, while in the instance of insulin-stimulated glucose disposal both calorie limitation and exercising demonstrated similar benefits

Findingss need to be substantiated through farther surveies.

Literary Mentions

Berk, L. E. 2007, Development through Lifespan, Third Edition, Dorling Kindersley ( India ) Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi.

Blagosklonny, M. V. , Campisi, J. , Sinclair, D. A. , Bartke, A. , Blasco, M. A. , Bonner, W. M. , Bohr, V. A. , Brosh, R. M. , Brunet, A. , DePinho, R. A. , Donehower, L. A. , Finch, C. E. , Finkel, T. , Gorospe, M. , Gudkov, A. V. , Hall, M. N. , Hekimi, S. , Helfand, S. , L. , Karlseder, J. , Kenyon, C. , Kroemer, G. , Longo, V. , Nussenzweig, A. , Osiewacz, H. D. , Peeper, D. S. , Rando, T. A. , Rudolph, K. L. , Sassone-Corsi, P. , Serrano, M. , Sharpless, N. E. , Skulachev, V. P. , Tilly, J. L. , Tower, J. , Verdin, E. & A ; Vijg, J. 2010, ‘Impact Documents on Aging in 2009 ‘ , Aging, vol.2, no.3, pp.111-121.

Brown, J. E. 2008, Nutrition through the Life Cycle, Thomson Higher Education, Belmont, CA.

Coker, R. H. , Williams, R. H. , Yeo, S. E. , Kortebein, P. M. , Bodenner, D. L. , Ker, P. A. & A ; Evans, W. J. 2009, ‘The Impact of Exercise Training Compared to Caloric Restriction on Hepatic and Peripheral Insulin Resistance in Obesity ‘ , The diary of clinical endocrinology & A ; metamorphosis, vol.94, no.11, pp.4258-4266.

Cousens, G. & A ; Rainoshek, D. 2008, There is a Remedy for Diabetes, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA.

De Caterina, R. , Zampolli, A. , Del Turco, S. , Madonna, R. & A ; Massaro, M. 2006, ‘Nutritional mechanisms that influence cardiovascular disease ‘ , American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.83, no.2, pp.4215-4265.

Dirks, A. J. & A ; Leeuwenburgh, C. 2006, ‘Calorie Restriction in Humans ‘ , Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, vol.127, no.1, pp.1-7.

Fontana, L & A ; Klein, S. 2007, ‘Aging, adiposeness, and calorie limitation ‘ , JAMA, vol.297, no.9, pp.986-994.

Fontana, L. , Vilareal, D. T. , Weiss, E. P. , Racette, S. B. , Steger-May, K. , Klein, S. & A ; Holloszy, J. O. 2007, ‘Calorie limitation or exercising: effects on coronary bosom disease hazard factors. A randomised, controlled test ‘ , American Journal of physiology, endocrinology and metamorphosis, vol.293, no.1, pp.197-202.

Gustaviani, R. , Soewondo, P. , Semiardii, G. & A ; Sudoyo, A. W. 2004, ‘The influence of calorie limitation during the Ramadan fast on serum fructosamine and the formation of beta hydroxybutirate in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients ‘ , Acta medica Indonesiana, vol.36, no.3, pp.136-141.

Johnson, J. B. Laub, D. R. & A ; John, S. 2006, ‘The Effect on Health of Alternate Day Calorie Restriction: Eating Less and More than Needed on Alternate Day ‘s Prolongs Life, Medical Hypothesis, vol.67, pp.209-211.

Koubova, J. & A ; Gurante, L. 2003, ‘How Does Calorie Restriction Work ‘ , Genes & A ; Development, vol.17, pp.313-321.

Kouda, K. & A ; Iki, M. 2010, ‘Beneficial Effectss of Mild Stress ( Hormetic Effects ) : Dietary Restriction and Health ‘ , Journal of Physiological Anthropology, vol.29, no.4, pp.127-132.

Madeo, F. , Tavernakis, N. & A ; Kroemer, G. 2010, ‘Can Autophagy Promote Longevity? ‘ , Nature Cell Biology, vol.12, no.9, pp.842-846.

Maswood, N. , Young, J. , Tilmont, E. , Zhang, Z. , Gash, D. M. , Gerhardt, D. A. , Grondin, R. , Roth, G. S. , Mattison, J. , Lane, M. A. , Carson, R. E. , Cohen, R. M. , Mouton, P. R. , Quigley, C. , Mattison, M. P. & A ; Ingram, D. K. 2004, ‘Caloric limitation additions neurotrophic factor degrees and attenuates neurochemical and behavioural shortages in a primate theoretical account of Parkinson ‘s disease, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.101, pp.18171-18176.

Qin, W. , Chachich, M. , Lane, M. , Roth, G. , Bryant, M. , de Cabo, R. , Ottinger, M. A. , Mattison, J. , Ingram, D. , Gandy, S. & A ; Pasinetti, G. M. 2006, ‘Calorie limitation attenuates Alzheimer ‘s disease type encephalon amyloidosis in Squirrel monkeys ( Saimiri sciureus ) , Journal of Alzheimer ‘s Disease, vol.10, no.4, pp.417-422.

Skriperchenko, N. D. , Sharafetdinov, K. K. , Plotinova, O. A. & A ; Mescheriakova, V. A. 2002, ‘Influence of thermal limitation diet on clinical and biochemical parametric quantities in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus ‘ , Vopr Pitan, vol.71, no.4, pp.13-17.

Sprott, R. L. & A ; Austad, S. N. 2006, ‘Historical Development of Animal Models of Aging ‘ , in Handbook of Models for Human Aging, erectile dysfunction. P. Michael Conn, Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA, pp.1-8.

×

Hi there, would you like to get such a paper? How about receiving a customized one? Check it out