Introduction
Cyberneticss surveies the systems of any nature, which have the ability to comprehend, maintain and treat information and usage it to command and pull off.
Cyberneticss is connected with the direction of unfastened systems, but merely those that have feedback. Positive feedback is the behaviour of the system increases the external influences ( for illustration, avalanches ) . Negative feedback is behavior, in which external influences are attenuated. Such communicating stabilizes processes in the system ( icebox, thermoregulator and all the modern information devices ) . Homeostatic relationship – when the external impact of the system is reduced to zero ( homeostasis is a maintaining of changeless organic structure temperature ) ( Beer, 1959 ) .
Norbert Wiener in the 50 ‘s and 60 ‘s defined cybernetics as the scientific discipline of pull offing relationships in machines and biological systems. Behavior of unfastened systems with feedback is described as an organized purposeful behaviour, which leads to a lessening in information. To the sixtieth twelvemonth revealed that for existent systems a small to take into history the effectual direction of the system, but must take into history the self-organizing system, that is, it was necessary to happen a nexus between effectual direction system and the specificity of the existent system development.
To analyze the systems cybernetics utilizations three basically different methods: the mathematical analysis, physical experiment and computational experiment. The first two are widely used in other scientific disciplines. The kernel of the first method is to depict the object studied in the model of a mathematical setup ( for illustration, in the signifier of equations ) and the subsequent extraction of assorted effects of this description by mathematical tax write-off ( for illustration, by work outing the corresponding system of equations ) . The kernel of the 2nd method is to carry on assorted experiments with either the object itself or from its existent physical theoretical account. Achievement of cybernetics is the development and usage of a new research method, known as computational or computing machine simulation, otherwise known as mathematical mold. Its significance is that the experiments were carried out with mathematical description, implemented in a computing machine, non a existent physical theoretical account of the object. Enormous velocity of modern computing machines frequently makes it possible to imitate procedures at a faster gait than they occur in world. A immense velocity of modern computing machines frequently makes it possible to imitate procedures at a faster gait than they occur in world.
History of Cyberneticss
At first, allow me make a small historical aside, because I was interested in the facet of the outgrowth and formation of cybernetics as a scientific discipline. I hope you will be interested excessively.
Harmonizing to my apprehension, there are two periods in the history of cybernetics as in any other scientific discipline: the accretion of stuffs and treating it into a new scientific discipline. It is deserving adverting the theory of ordinance of applied scientist Aurel Stodola, which was published century in a Swiss magazine at the terminal of Nineteen century. It considered the rule of control by feedback. The distinctive feature of the history of computer science is important because the first ciphering machines instantly opened to people the possibility of mental work mechanisation. It is impossible to disregard “ The mathematical survey of logicAA» by George Boole. It marked the beginning of the algebraic logic development, which cybernetics utilizations broad now. When in chance theory, a new subdivision – Information Theory, versatility of the new theory, though non instantly go clear to all. When Information Theory as a new subdivision of chance theory has been emerged, versatility of the new theory became clear to all. For illustration, was founded the correspondence between the sum of information and step the passage of different signifiers energy into heat – information. This was foremost pointed out in 1929 by the celebrated physicist Szilard Leo. Subsequently, information theory has become one of the most of import foundations in cybernetics. There are seeable accomplishments in the physiology of higher nervous activity in the Twenty century. Particularly in the survey of animate beings larning procedures. There are the theory of physiological activity by Bernstein and the rule of functional systems by Anokhin in the 30 old ages of this century. The convergence of proficient agencies used in physiology and in mechanization traveling along with the advancement. This convergence is accompanied by a common exchange by the rules of block diagrams building, thoughts, mold, methods of analysis and synthesis systems.
During my literature research about outgrowth and development of cybernetics as a scientific discipline, I found information about a little-known Soviet scientist Alexander Bogdanov, who in 1911 dealt with jobs of organisational constructions and his book “ The Universal organisational scientific discipline, or Tectology” .
His book “ The Universal organisational scientific discipline, or Tectology ” has been written instead antediluvian linguistic communication… However, if we translate the logical thinking of A. Bogdanov into modern linguistic communication, it is possible to state that he argued that the organisation development of any sort are needed non merely negative but besides positive feedback. If you look closely at his work, any organized system and any living animal in peculiar, shows the ability to implement both types of feedback. I truly think that “ Tectology ” by Bogdanov incorporates the basicss of cybernetics, systems analysis and synergistic. Unfortunately, ideological differences between him and the leader of universe labor have prevented to do out in the work of Bogdanov positive “grains” . Probably this is the 1 of the grounds long forgotten this mind and his partial “ recovery ” merely in the 2nd half of 80th. I think, the chief ground why Alexander Bogdanov was inappropriate for proletariat leading of that state as the laminitis of a new subdivision of scientific discipline is that his “ Tectology ” as more or less marked option to Marxism – a planetary undertaking of proletariat leading. “ Tectology ” created the stipulations for prostration and riddance of the labor power in the instance of presenting a “ cosmopolitan organisational scientific discipline ” ( even more so in developing ) in a set of publically available cognition of world. “ Tectology ” by Bogdanov, in contrast to the advertised “ Cyberneticss ” by N. Wiener, was virtually unaccessible for ordinary Soviet citizen, even if person heard about this book. “ Tectology ” may non lie entirely in particular depositaries in academic libraries, but the term “ cybernetics ” in the 2nd half of 1950 was already in circulation, and Tectology been about wholly forgotten. About Bogdanov and his non-Marxist kernel ( as the mistake of Bogdanov ) incoherently mentioned in the class of doctrine ( and likely merely in graduate student classs ) .
But in any instance, major American mathematician Norbert Wiener said the concluding word in the birth of a new scientific discipline. Possibly Wiener is the first who understand that the outgrowth of the digital computing machine raises the inquiry of a qualitatively new degree of human interaction with machines. I want to stress: Norbert Wiener has ne’er tried to assume person else ‘s glorification. In contrast, when he visited the Soviet Union in 1960, he had the friendly dealingss with Soviet scientists and appreciated their work.
In the terminal I want to sum up that there are many other scientists, non merely Wiener, who besides made a pretty important part in Cybernetic creative activity. But, doubtless, Norbert Wiener is the laminitis of cybernetics scientific discipline.
Norbert Wiener and his Cyberneticss
Norbert Wiener ( 1894-1964 ) was born in Columbia, Missouri. He learned to read at four old ages, and already read Darwin and Dante at six. He enrolled in high school in nine old ages, which began to analyze kids from 15-16 old ages old. He graduated from high school when he was eleven. Immediately the male child entered high school, Taft College. After the terminal of it, at age 14, received a Bachelor of Arts. Then he studied at Harvard and Cornell universities, in 17 old ages at Harvard, became a Maestro of Humanistic disciplines, 1918 – Doctor of Philosophy grade in mathematical logic.
Norbert Wiener was a scientist, internationalist and a existent humanist. He was interested and disquieted about the societal deductions of cybernetics, but he believed that the power of the human head capable to forestall the technocratic catastrophe.
The construct of cybernetics was born from the synthesis of many scientific Fieldss. At first, as a general attack to the description and analysis of life beings action and computing machines or other machines. Second, it was born from analogies between the behaviour of populating organisms communities and human society and the possibility of depicting them utilizing a general theory of direction. And eventually, from the synthesis theory of information transportation and statistical natural philosophies, which has led to of import finds associating the sum of information and negative information in the system.
In his history book, which was published in 1948, Wiener argued that all alive adapts to its environment and accomplish their ends because it have feedback. “ All of the machines, which want claiming to be AA«reasonableAA» – he wrote – must hold the ability to prosecute certain ends and adapt i.e. learn. ”
So, what reallyinventViner?The chief part of Wiener that he foremost understood the cardinal importance of information in direction procedures. He saw the chief thing in combination, non merely the words “ direction ” and “ connexion ” .
So, how cybernetics was born?A narrative of the birth of cybernetics and the innovation of the term set out in item in the book of the Wiener, and I will non reiterate it here. The concluding push gave the World War II. Mechanized conflict with the latest proficient equipment made to the warring parties complex proficient jobs and turned the lab into the field of conflict. The jobs of automatic control and automatic nexus got an extraordinary acuteness, calculating has developed quickly. Wiener during the war worked in this demanding field, and comparing the maps of automatic devices with the maps of life existences, summing up his long-standing scientific pursuit came to a bill of exchange of a new scientific discipline.
Stafford Beer and his apprehension of cybernetics
In “Cybernetics and Management” Stafford Beer explains the basic constructs of cybernetics. He argues that cybernetic systems have three basic belongingss. First, they are complex, probabilistic and self- ordinance. Second, they are targeted, i.e. each system in the single point of position is regarded every bit designed to accomplish a certain end. Third, they are characterized by feedback and control, which determine the behaviour of the targeted system. Many systems can non acquire a specific definition because they are extraordinary complexness. Behavior is studied through the designation of logical and statistical relationships between input and end product of information. The system in this instance regarded as a “ black box ” , which I ‘ll discourse subsequently.
Stafford Beer finds the relationship of cybernetics and the theory of information and with plants of Claude Shannon. Efficient operation of the system depends on its ability to hive away, transmit and transform information. Information destroys the multiplicity, and the decrease of assortment is one of the chief methods of direction. This procedure is directed to seeking to do behaviour more predictable, non to simplify the system.
The chief tool of the scientist-cybernetics, harmonizing to Stafford Beer, is a “ theoretical account “ . Models by Beer are logical descriptions of cybernetic systems. Changes in the province system can be represented as a alteration in the logic of its actions. Thus we can depict the dynamic system by a theoretical account with sets of regulations for altering their status.
The mark of Beers attitudes to cybernetics supplying the theoretical foundations of patterning which aid for understanding the kernel of his most celebrated innovation – the feasible system theoretical account.
The Feasible System Model
The feasible system theoretical account is a theoretical account which reflects the behaviour of an effectual organisation. This is a theoretical account of any feasible system, both the biological and societal. VSM provides some rules and if organisation follow this rules, it will be “ worthy of endurance ” . The rules are controllability, educability and the ability to accommodate and develop. VSM corresponds to the organisation, which constructed on five basic direction maps: the execution of operations, coordination, control, rational development and policy devising. Stafford Beer assigns to these systems the corresponding Numberss from one to five. The cardinal inquiries for organisations are relationship Torahs, which should be implemented in a direction contour and information transportation.
Stafford Beer applies in VSM the jurisprudence that all organisations contain themselves ( recursion ) . The basic rule is that each contains the organisation and each of the five systems, which it includes in itself, should be granted as much liberty as possible without interrupting the overall unity. This defines characteristics for concern and direction how companies could run as compared with regulations that Beer culls because they are merely simply ways of duties distribution ( cybernetic logic against hierarchal logic ) .
Model defines the basic operations of the organisation, defines the relationships between these operations and the other four direction maps, which serve them: coordination, control, intelligence and policy preparation.
Operationss ( System 1 ) are the chief signifier of activity that reflects those of the organisation activity for which it was created. System 1 consists of several units with their directors. Each such unit considers as a feasible system. The construct of viability in this instance means that every unit is guaranteed to continue their unity. Regulation ( System 2 ) ensures effectual and sustainable usage of resources. Its execution involves obtaining critical information about the short-run jobs that arise during executing of operations and reduces the uncontrolled oscillations. Control ( System 3 ) runs as the checking and commanding maps, which maintains a comparatively stable balance between mutualist units. The map of research and development ( system 4 ) have general information about all facets of internal and external environment. This map gathers the necessary information about all advantages and disadvantages of internal procedures. System 5 trades with the strategic determinations, issues of direction manner and the pressing information.
The chief failing of VSM, which I founded in literature, is that it non adequate considers activity of persons.
The Team Syntegrity Model
The construct of The Team Syntegrity Model contained in “Beyond Dispute” and complemented VSM. As we all good known, VSM provides a cybernetic description of the organisation. The Team Syntegrity is complementary point of Beers view about people ‘s engagement. This impression tries to form a regulative, policy and strategic planning, and other originative procedures. This theoretical account is a regular icosahedron ( with 20 sides ) . He has 30 ribs, each of which represents a individual. Set of protocols creates an internal web. When the spores are distributed over a web, Model “ reverberate and buzzing ” . This domain is a group consciousness without hierarchy. Stafford Beer argues that the squad with this organisation is the latest definition of the participatory democracy construct because each function is identical from the others.
The Black Box Technique
I would wish to see in item the “ black box ” method for look intoing systems, which is widely used in cybernetics. I think it is non exaggeration to state that any thing, any object, any phenomenon – any cognizable object – ever foremost appears like a “ black box “ .
English scientist William Ross Ashby, who proposed a “ black box ” as a construct in cybernetics, says that it is a survey of the relationship between the experimenter and the environment, with peculiar accent on information.
So, the “ black box ” is a system and we know nil about her internal construction. How we can discourse it, analyze, look into? “ Black Box ” is a system with merely one manus – the relationship between “ inputs “ and “ end products ” . We want understand the behaviour of the system in this connexion. It is merely behavior. We are non taken into history the construction or the stuffs. Basic information will ever take the signifier of statements, in which the ascertained province of assorted parts of the “ black box ” ( “ input ” and “ end product ” ) recorded in the order in clip. Each system investigates by bit by bit doing the long protocol, which drawn up in chronological order and shows the sequence of “ input ” and “ end product ” . As a consequence of such a protocol, we know what “ inputs ” experimenter manipulates and what is go oning at the same clip to “ end product ” . When experimenter bit by bit spread outing the circle of “ input – end product ” , he finds the behaviour of his considered system. And we try to bring out the internal links in the “ black box ” , its construction during acquaintance with his behaviour. However, no affair how exhaustively we studied the behaviour of the “ black box ” , we can non acquire a clear determination about its internal construction, its device. After all, different systems may hold the same behaviour.
So, why the “ black box ” is widely used for work outing jobs in cybernetics?
As a regulation in cybernetics, we are covering with systems of all sorts, which non can hold a elaborate description – big systems. Scientists frequently encounter in the research with the fortunes, when can be applied merely “ black box ” . Sometimes, big systems are so complex that even though there is complete information about the position of their single elements, but the elements are so legion that it is hard to accommodate this information and justice the behaviour of the system. The research worker is unable to get by with it: he or buried in this information or can non comprehend it.
So, how I understand, “ black box ” is indispensable in the survey of really big systems. It allows us to stand for a complex system in the signifier of a “ black box “ . Then we build a simplified theoretical account and get down to analyze: maintaining a changeless comparing of the behaviour of the system and its theoretical account until the rules on which was construct a theoretical account will be correspond for premise about rules of constructing systems.
Feedback
Feedback is the rearward impact of the consequences on its passing or impact a controlled procedure on the regulating organic structure. Feedback describes the ordinance and control systems in living nature, society and engineering. There are positive and negative feedback. If the consequences of the procedure strengthen it, so the feedback is positive. When the consequences of the procedure weaken its consequence, so there is negative feedback. Negative feedback stabilizes the procedure. Positive feedback, by contrast, normally leads to an accelerated development procedure and to vibrational procedures. In complex systems ( for illustration, societal, biological ) designation of feedback types is hard and sometimes impossible. Feedback is besides classified harmonizing to the nature of organic structures and environments: mechanical, optical, the electric etc. Sometimes the feedback in complex systems are considered as the transportation of information on the flow procedure, on which based a peculiar control action. In this instance, the feedback is called information. The construct of feedback as a signifier of interaction has an of import function in analysing the operation and development of complex control systems in living nature and society, in detecting the construction of the material integrity of the universe.
The construct of feedback is cardinal to cybernetics. Consequences of object working do non act upon to his hereafter destiny with the absence of feedback. In this instance, the operation does non better, and does non degrade the home ground of the object harmonizing to the standards for endurance of the object and in this sense, indifferent to the object. A purposive system behaviour and version to new conditions of being is unthinkable without feedback.
Application of Cyberneticss
Cyberneticss has found application in biological science and medical specialty for research the physiological, in peculiar, familial, procedures, for diagnosing, for replace ( during surgery or unwellness ) of the internal variety meats by self-acting devices, and besides for prosthetic device. From the Cybernetics separated a new scientific subject – bionics, which analyzing the possibility of utilizing engineering for forms, ways of direction, transmittal, processing, storage, which are happening in life beings. Finally, cybernetics helps the scientific discipline, which analyzing psychological science ( teaching method, psychological science, psychopathology, and epistemology ) , find methods of research.
Cyberneticss helps non merely engineering, scientific discipline, and societal scientific disciplines. Political economic system, jurisprudence, linguistics, logic besides use its methods. Science is going more and more “ aggressive ” in relation to other scientific disciplines, technology, fabrication, agribusiness and even human life. This contributes non merely the successful development of theoretical surveies, but besides improves the proficient footing of cybernetics: the higher machines, electronic computing machines, assorted mathematical electronic devices, powerful information systems.
Decisions
The particular of this scientific discipline is that it surveies the working consequence of this category of systems, non the material composing of the systems and their construction. In cybernetics was foremost formulated the construct of “ black box “ as a device that performs some operation on the present and past input capacity, but for which we do non needfully hold information about the construction, which guaranting the execution of this operation.
How I understand during my small research, the chief end of cybernetics as the direction scientific discipline is to guarantee of edifice at base of acquisition construction and mechanism of direction of such systems, such organisation of their work, such cooperation of element interior of these systems and such interaction with outside environment, so the consequences of functionality of these systems are the best, in other words they would acquire specified end of map by minimal costs of different resources ( natural stuffs, energy, human working, machine clip, fuel ) AA more faster. I think all this can be briefly defined the term “ optimisation ” . Thus, the chief end of cybernetics is the optimisation of control systems.
