Purpose of this paper – This survey was performed in order to understand what work has been completed sing how lime howitzer fix is carried out on historic edifices and why calcium hydroxide is used.
Methodology/scope – Journal articles and books were studied in order to understand the degree of work that has so far been completed.
Findingss – It was found that
Research restrictions – There is a big sum of published work on this subject, accordingly non all of the relevant articles and surveies could be read for inclusion into the literature reappraisal. However it is thought that the of import inside informations and findings are included.
Practical deductions –
Value –
Keywords – howitzers, calcium hydroxide, renovation, historic edifices, care.
Introduction
The usage of edifice calcium hydroxides as the chief constituent in howitzers and renders has increased well over the past five to ten old ages. This traditional
basic stuff is basically of import to the long term endurance of historic edifices, yet there are many who regard its ‘ usage with uncertainty, appropriate possibly for a National Trust belongings but by and large unneeded. When we consider that about all the churches, abbeys, cathedrals, palaces, stately places and half the edifice stock in the U.K. was built with calcium hydroxide, including the now celebrated Coronation Street, it is barely surprising that the usage of calcium hydroxide is fast approaching back.
This literature reappraisal is intended to synthesize published information sing research carried out into lime howitzer and its usage in historic edifices. The accent in this papers is on the analysis of the demands of edifice preservation activities, their relationship with and influence on the pick and application of proficient and scientific steps needed to carry through these demands.
Calcium hydroxide
Lime is the traditional, ancient adhering medium of masonry ( Ashurst, 1997 ) . Lime is produced by firing limestone ( calcium carbonate ) . This produces Ca oxide ( otherwise known as speedy calcium hydroxide ) and this is so hydrated with H2O to bring forth Ca hydrated oxide ( calcium hydroxide ) . This procedure is known as slaking. Harmonizing to Taylor ( 2000 ) , ‘if no clay is present in the original limestone or chalk, the ensuing calcium hydroxide is said to be non-hydraulic ‘ . Non-hydraulic calcium hydroxides set by responding with C dioxide to organize Ca carbonate, they will stiffen and finally harden.
Lime otherwise know as Ca hydrated oxide, has its ain categorization system which was developed by Louis Vicat – a Gallic civil applied scientist who researched hydraulic calcium hydroxides and cements. He classified limes harmonizing to their hydraulicity, which is their ability to put under H2O. The categories he identified consist of: non-hydraulic to feebly hydraulic calcium hydroxide, feebly to reasonably hydraulic calcium hydroxide and reasonably to eminently hydraulic calcium hydroxide. The hydraulicity of the lime depends on the sum of drosss present in the limestone from which it is burned such as clay and silicon oxide. The more clay and silicon oxide which is present, the greater the hydraulicity of the calcium hydroxide. In general the more hydraulic the calcium hydroxide the harder the ensuing howitzer ( Pavia and Bolton, 2000 ) and the shorter the scene period. This will impact where the howitzer can be used on the edifice.
Mortars
There are assorted definitions on what a howitzer is, the most elaborate being from the RILEM Technical Committee-167 COM ( 2001 ) . It states that: ‘Mortar is a mix of organic and inorganic binders, chiefly all right sums, H2O and alloies and organic and inorganic additives mixed in order to give to the fresh howitzer a good workability and to the hardened howitzer equal physical ( porousness, vapour permeableness etc. ) and mechanical ( strength, deformability, adhesion etc. ) behavior and good visual aspect and lastingness. This definition is the most relevant for howitzers in historic edifices as it is based on recent research into demands for a compatible howitzer used for preservation of masonry.
Functions of howitzer
The UK Limes research squad ( 2003 ) province the three chief maps of a howitzer are to supply an even bed so that the burden on the wall is distributed equally over the whole bearing country of the masonry units, to bond the units together and assist them defy sidelong forces and to seal the articulations against the incursion of rain. Mortars in historic constructions function in many different ways as renders on internal and external walls, bedding howitzer of masonry, back uping stuff for pavings and mosaics, and watertight run alonging stuffs in cisterns, Wellss, aqueducts etcaˆ¦ ( Moropoulou et al. 2000 ) . Ashurst ( 1983 ) states that howitzers can be used in the undermentioned preservation techniques: pointing, repointing, unsmooth racking, packing, bedding, replacing of masonry units, internal and external coating – plasters, renders and their fix, fictile fix, injection and grouting.
Why usage calcium hydroxide howitzers?
Harmonizing to the Northern Ireland Environment Agency ( 2009 ) in their work pattern guidelines for remedial preservation plants, lime howitzer is the most of import stuff to be used in remedial preservation plants on historic constructions. This is because it is H2O permeable and besides allows for motion within the articulations of the edifice. Given that there is continual motion in the clefts of an historic edifice which have a seasonal envelope this is a necessity. When motion is cumulative in one way it is doing a important distortion. Consequently, the more elastic stuffs are, the more likely they are to be compatible with the construction as a whole ( Feilden 2003 ) .
Traditional calcium hydroxide howitzers are more permeable and more flexible than cement howitzers, they are less likely to do decay in next rock and they are more environmentally friendly than cement howitzers ( Gibbons 2003 ) . This permeableness of lime howitzer meant that these traditional edifices did non necessitate a moist cogent evidence class. The permeableness of the calcium hydroxide howitzer allowed vaporization of lifting and perforating moistness from the edifice.
Fortunately most walls constructed before 1914 were set in lime howitzer, which can suit considerable sums of motion without checking due to crawl, whereas more modern walls require the frequent proviso of movement-joints ( Richardson 2006 ) . The job arises nevertheless where these walls and edifice are repaired and refurbished utilizing a stuff other than what was at that place originally.
What is incorrect with utilizing cement howitzer?
After the innovation of Portland cement during the 19th and early twentieth centuries research has concentrated chiefly on its development and this new modern manner of edifice. Cement howitzers were considered better, stronger, more lasting and with a more dependable indurating procedure than lime howitzers. Approximately from the First World War onwards cement rich howitzers and renders were used in the fix and Restoration of historic edifices ( Burman 1998 ) , where they had most frequently non been portion of the original cloth. It was merely after serious failures, where inappropriate usage of the cement howitzers damaged the valuable original masonry, that a turning involvement in lime-based howitzers reappeared. However the coming of Portland cement as the dominant howitzer binder during the twentieth century, resulted in all research attempts being focused off from lime howitzers and peculiarly its usage in edifice preservation.
This was redressed partially by events like the publication of the Venice Charter ( 1964 ) that was approved during the 2nd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments held in Venice that twelvemonth. Although it did non impact straight the usage of howitzers, it set out preservation and Restoration principals that supported scientific research to underpin better preservation of the architectural heritage.
There is nil incorrect with utilizing a cement howitzer every bit long as it is non on a traditional edifice which was originally constructed utilizing lime howitzer.
Cement pointing is difficult and stiff compared to lime indicating ‘s soft and flexible nature.
Repair of historic edifices & A ; compatibility
The most effectual methods of mending and keeping traditional masonry edifices about constantly involve the usage of stuffs and techniques employed in their original building. This is based on preservation rules such as the BURRA charter ( 1999 ) . The BURRA charter provinces that the preservation policy of the edifice should place the most appropriate manner of caring for the cloth. Stirling, S ( 2002 ) besides argues that the fix must be compatible with the original building, its life span, and follow the rules of good preservation pattern. The BURRA charter prefers traditional techniques and stuffs for the preservation of historic edifices. However Pickard ( 1996 ) has a more relaxed position of preservation, he feels that new stuffs and methods of fix can deserve consideration if they have proved themselves over clip and besides if the benefit of utilizing them outweighs any injury that they could do to the edifice. The fix techniques should esteem the original stuff and constructions otherwise they become incompatible ( Binda et al. 2000 ) .
Understanding of material interaction with other stuffs and environments is much more important for stuffs used in the modern edifice industry. The stuffs and techniques used in preservation must run into particular demands such as compatibility, reversibility, etc.
Van Hees ( 2000 ) suggested a definition of compatibility related straight to howitzers as follows: “ The new howitzer should be every bit lasting as possible, without ( straight or indirectly ) doing harm to the original stuff. ”
There are still howitzers presently applied in remedial preservation plants which can do harm or accelerate impairment to the historic substrate.
Mortars in historic edifices
The bulk of howitzers in historic edifices are made from calcium hydroxide. Lime howitzer has been used in Ireland from when early Christian churches were built and more normally from when unit of ammunition towers were built ( Pavia and Bolton 2000 ) . Lime howitzer engineering arrived comparatively late in Ireland ( Dotter et al, 2009 ) since its usage has been known since Egyptian times when both calcium hydroxide and gypsum based howitzers were used in the edifice of the pyramids. The way of debut of howitzer engineering to Ireland is ill-defined, though harmonizing to Pavia and Bolton ( 2000 ) the general hypothesis is that it was introduced from post-Roman Britain or Western Europe. The usage of lime howitzer was mastered by the twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours pattern of craftsmen in prehistoric and mediaeval times more or less following the regulations set by Vitruvius in his authoritative work ‘Ten books on Architecture ‘ . Their usage was complemented much later on by experimental research consequences from the terminal of the eighteenth century by Smeaton ( 1793 ) or Vicat ( 1837 ) . Historic Scotland ( Gibbons 1995 ) published a Technical Advice Note which revived the topic of the Use of Lime howitzers. It particularly stressed the usage of non-hydraulic calcium hydroxide howitzers made of lime putty. The publication became an important beginning of information for readying of lime howitzers used in preservation. However, the assortment of composing, techniques of production and application of howitzer should non be underestimated. Lynch ( 1998 ) pointed out that historic howitzers were non merely mortars made of lime putty or 1:3 mix. The beginning of limestone and the local beginning of sand had an influence on its composing every bit good as the differences in commixture and readying. There is now increasing grounds that hot commixture and dry commixture ( Leslie and Gibbons 2000, Callebaut et Al. 2000, Hughes et Al. 2001 ) techniques were besides applied to fix many historic howitzers. Hydraulic lime howitzers were besides used, particularly in towns and metropoliss. In countries devoid of natural hydraulic calcium hydroxides, ‘ artifical ‘ hydraulic calcium hydroxides were utilised, being non-hydraulic calcium hydroxide assorted with a pozzolana ( Lynch, 1998 ) .
Furlan ( 1991 ) pointed out that the research into lime howitzers has multiplied during the last two decennaries. Many publications suggest that new howitzers for any remedial work on historic masonry should be based on the attack that pure lime howitzers prepared in a traditional manner demo the closest public presentation belongingss to the historic masonry ( e.g. Torraca, 1988 ) . Conservation literature in many instances ( e.g. Edward gibbons, 1995 ) simplifies the job of compatibility as the determination to utilize lime-based howitzer alternatively of cement howitzer. This consequences from bad experiences of utilizing cement howitzers in the yesteryear. When measuring past preservation attempts the two following points frequently appear:
First the calcium hydroxide engineering and accomplishments were partly forgotten ( Gibbons, 1995 )
Second portland cement suspended calcium hydroxide because of its high quality in strength ( Gibbons 1995 ) but other qualities of lime howitzer were non decently considered.
Correct application of lime howitzer requires particular preparation and attention to be successful ( Maxwell 1998, Gibbons 1995 ) . Although the usage of cement-based howitzers was widespread. Their compatibility was non considered and they were frequently found subsequently to be incompatable with the orginal masonry stuff. There is general understanding between scientific and preservation literature sing these two points. A serious survey of the usage of cement howitzer and the decay of rock and brick is still deficient, so statements sing the mutual exclusiveness of cement and its rejection by the preservation practicians are non backed by elaborate grounds.
Limited research
Research into howitzer and concrete based on Portland cement appears much more advanced than that on calcium hydroxide ( e.g. Hewlett 1998 ) . The research reflects the usage of cement and concrete in the modern edifice industry. This point illustrates the fact that there are no international calcium hydroxide oriented research diaries, some national diaries exist, e.g. The Journal of the Building Limes Forum. Research articles about calcium hydroxide and lime howitzers are frequently found in diaries oriented towards chiefly concrete and cement such as Cement and Concrete Research, Concrete International, Materials and Structures, Magazine of Concrete Research, Construction and Building Research, Brick News, Magazine of Masonry Constructions, Masonry International, etc. In future it may look that a deficiency of exact scientific cognition of calcium hydroxide and lime howitzers will be the greatest drawback in its proper usage as a compatible stuff. A more elaborate apprehension of cardinal belongingss of new lime howitzers is hence required to endorse up the demands from preservation pattern to utilize original stuffs for preservation plants ( Furlan 1991, Valek 2000 ) .
Addition of brick dust
Addition of brick dust into lime howitzers can better their strength and lastingness. The consequences from the Smeaton Project ( Teutonico 1994 ) suggested that the clay type and its firing temperature are the factors which affect the public presentation of howitzers. Hughes and Sugden ( 2000 ) followed this research in experimental work on hydraulic lime howitzers. The writers concluded that the choiceness of the brick dust and the hardening conditions are the most relevant parametric quantities to be altered in order to maximise betterment in strength. Papayianni and Theocharidou ( 1993 ) concluded that the add-on of brick dust contributes to strength but it besides lowers the capillary rise rate. It could besides increase the H2O memory of howitzers ( Papayianni and Theocharidou 1993 ) .
Ripening of calcium hydroxide putty
The consequence of ageing on lime putty was studied by Hansen et Al. ( 2000 ) . The writers measured consistence and workability of an elderly calcium hydroxide putty and flow of a howitzer mix made of the aged putty. They concluded that the aged putty ( 16 old ages ) performed better due to the decrease of lime atoms in size with ageing. The H2O keeping, consistence and flow trials implied that H2O absorbed in the older calcium hydroxide putty was harder to take by mechanical action in comparing with the younger putty ( 2 old ages ) . However, ageing alone may be deficient to guarantee betterment for certain types of calcium hydroxide. Factors such as limestone beginning, buring temperature, atom responsiveness and quenching conditions can act upon the size of crystals and impact the ageing features of lime putty ( Hansen et al. ) .
Thomson ( 2000 ) used a surface country trial to compare atom sizes of dolomitic hydrates and putties, high Ca putty and a high Ca hydrate. The calcium hydroxide putty made in the lab possessed really little atoms. Thomson ( 2000 ) concluded that in this instance a farther decrease of the atoms was really improbable and hence the ripening of lime putty to cut down the atoms in size may non be wholly relevant. Harmonizing to Thomson ( 2000 ) the maturing of lime putty provides chiefly a completion of the slaking procedure.
Carbonation of lime howitzers
Carbonation of non-hydraulic lime howitzers is considered to be the most of import procedure of hardening and it has a direct influence on lastingness and strength of the howitzer. Carbonation of new lime howitzer can take several months, but there are besides illustrations when carbonation of a howitzer inside masonry took more than several hundred old ages ( Hosek and Muk 1989 ) .
Hughes et Al. ( 1998 ) suggested that the factors that affect initial carbonation and hardening in the short term might hold less influence on the lastingness and physical belongingss of historic howitzers in the long term. Calcium carbonate is soluble and when H2O is present the carbonated atoms can be dissolved, altering the pore construction and strength of a howitzer. When howitzer carbonates, it additions mass and its porousness lessenings ( Parrot 1991-1992 ) . However, in a longer term, porousness can increase due to the disintegration of Ca carbonate, mechanical impairment, micro clefts caused by burden, salt and hoar onslaughts. As a consequence of this the strength and other belongingss of howitzers vary significantly depending on ageing conditions. In Ireland there are illustrations of really crumbly howitzers every bit good as really difficult and heavy howitzers both made from non-hydraulic calcium hydroxide but exposed to different environmental conditions ( Hughes 1998 ) . Some of these comparatively difficult and strong howitzers have a really high porousness.
During the initial hardening of howitzers the rate of carbonation depends on the howitzer surface coating and its permeableness ( Valek at al 2000 ) . Carbonation can be slowed down by a decrease of permeableness and diffusivity. Such decrease may happen due to a decrease of pore sizes induced by a patterned advance of the carbonation inwards from the surface ( Hilsdorf et al. no day of the month ) and suppressing CO2 come ining deeper into the howitzer.
Strength
Harmonizing to Hosek and Muk ( 1989 ) the strength of non-hydraulic howitzers is gained from three procedures.
Drying of lime howitzers
A long-run disintegration of silicia in the alkalic environment of Ca hydrated oxide and attendant formation of solid stages of Ca sililcate
Carbonation of lime howitzers.
In general carbonation is considered to hold the biggest influence on strength development. However, this requires deeper surveies, as the chief influence on strength seems to differ depending on the ripening phases and the hardening conditions. The initial phase of indurating seems to be more influenced by the drying out procedure than carbonation ( Valek and Bartos 2001 ) .
Schafer and Hilsdorf ( 1993 ) tried to associate type of binder, binder-aggregate proportion and porousness in order to indirectly gauge compressive strength and elastic modulus of historic howitzers. The writers introduced a expression to cipher the strength strictly from consequences of chemical and ocular analysis.
Suter and Song ( 1995 ) pointed out that when depicting strength of historic howitzers it is of import to execute a relevant trial instead than rely on the broad scope of informations presented in publications. A great assortment of howitzers with assorted proportions of binder and sum have been reported in literature ( Suter and Song 1995 ) . However the size and figure of samples available from historic masonry restricts the mechanical testing. Often non-destructive, ‘in-situ ‘ testing is necessary for proving howitzers within historic masonry.
Testing standard specimens of a new howitzer may non match to the features of howitzers from within masonry. Henzel and Karl ( 1987 ) demonstrated that strength obtained from standard research lab specimens was lower than that obtained from a normal howitzer articulation. The howitzer from within masonry was subjected to assorted influential factors which affected its belongingss.
Chemical bond between lime howitzer and masonry
The bond between howitzer and masonry is of import for both emphasis strain transmittal and lastingness. If the bond is hapless, H2O can perforate much more easy inside masonry and cause debasement. This applies to bedding howitzer but besides to plasters and renders.
It is possible that calcium hydroxide can perforate into bricks and carbonate in their pores, hence making a physical adhension between the howitzer and brick ( Armelao et al 2000 ) . Similar observation was presented before by Baronio and Binda ( 1987 ) who studied a mortar-brick interface on samples of historic and modern howitzers. The writers noticed that the extent and conditions of a lime-based mortar/brick contact was better than the one of a cement-based howitzer as the calcium hydroxide penetrates to the unfastened porousness of the bricks. Cement based howitzers presented long narrow nothingnesss on the contact with bricks.
Lastingness of howitzers
The most common causes of debasement are frost and sulphate onslaught. Both cause internal impairment through an enlargement in the pore construction of howitzers. The causes and effects of enduring in porous stuffs used in edifices have been widely described in literature ( Torraca 1988 ) .
Waldum and Anda ( 2000 ) surveies debasement of lime render sample panels. The writers pointed out general deductions that non-hydraulic calcium hydroxide howitzers do non hold a good repute in footings of their lastingness in freeze/thaw and salt impairment. From their measuring the writers observed that the beginning of the debasement procedure correlates with an addition in the concentration of Ca in run-off H2O. They did non detect any salt debasement as the freeze/thaw was excessively ruling.
The Smeaton Project ( Teutonico 1994 ) concluded that little measures of cement in howitzer mixes with cement content less than 1:3:12 ( cement: calcium hydroxide: sand ) had a negative consequence on their strength and lastingness. A similar decision was reached by Holmstrom ( 1995 ) who stated that the lastingness of lime howitzers gauged with cement decreased, even in comparing to lime based howitzers, if the proportion of added cement is less than 40-50 % in weight to the calcium hydroxide. This may be related to salt impairment, as even little measures of cement addition the salt of howitzers ( Papayianni and Theocharidou 1993 ) .
Lime howitzers & A ; preservation
Practical experience gained from preservation undertakings is a valuable beginning of cognition about public presentation and behaviour of howitzers. ‘Hands on ‘ experience is extremely valued in preservation and practical experience is considered to be peculiarly utile for the design of a compatible howitzer. A reappraisal of modern-day pattern of utilizing lime howitzers in preservation was presented at Historic Scotland ‘s International Lime Conference ( Ward and Maxwell 1995 ) .
Lime based howitzers are good illustrations of a traditional stuff used in preservation, where good accomplishments and practical experience have a important influence on public presentation. Burman ( 1995 ) described the advantages of utilizing calcium hydroxide in assorted preservation techniques and the successful resurgence of calcium hydroxide into wider preservation pattern. For traditional calcium hydroxide howitzers, frequently the preservation technique, good site pattern, craft and accomplishments are considered to be the cardinal instruments for their successful application ( Gibbons 1995, Johnston 1995 ) . Many failures of lime howitzers are caused by their inappropriate usage or by a deficiency of pattern and preparation in their right application ( Gibbons, 1995 ) .
The most basic specifications for new howitzers are from practical edifice and masonry preservation ushers ( e.g. Stone edifices by Pat McAfee 1998 ) . The usual advice is to transport out basic analysis to obtain the composing of the howitzer ( normally by fade outing the howitzer in acid ) in the first case. If the original howitzer has performed good so the new howitzer mix should resemble it every bit closely as possible. It is advised that the new howitzer should be softer than the rock. Ashurst ( 1990 ) in the ‘English Heritage Technical Handbook ‘ specifies that the original sum should be copied, nevertheless the mix may necessitate to be modified to better the weathering features. Milner ( 1972 ) points out that natural stuffs should be used to fit the coloring material and texture. He besides suggested that soft howitzers should non be used for fixs on edifices originally constructed with difficult howitzer.
The basic specifications for howitzer required by preservation pattern can be summarised as follows:
The expression of the new howitzer should fit that of the original 1
The new howitzer should be softer than the original howitzer or masonry but, on the manus, the howitzer should non be excessively soft if the original masonry was constructed with difficult howitzer.
Under no fortunes should the new howitzer cause impairment to the bing stuff
Side effects and long-run effects caused by fix should besides be considered
Holmstrom ( 1992 ) presented a list of compatibility standards for lime howitzer renders used by contractors in Sweden:
Materials and constituents used must be removable, and must non alter the physical or chemical balance of the edifice and must non alter the aesthetics.
Each bed of howitzer should be weaker than the substrate.
Materials with the same belongingss as the original should be used. If the original stuffs are non used, this must be justified and all relevant belongingss of the original and the replacement must be declared.
These suggestions support minimal intercession and the saving of bing historic cloth. In add-on Holmstrom ‘s ( 1992 ) standards emphasise the demand for reversibility of the stuff applied. The concluding point makes demands for analysis of historic howitzers in order to explicate compatible replacings that resemble the original. Basic public presentation testing and unmoved tests are common and recommended. There is less demand nevertheless for proving and qualifying the new howitzer belongingss, as it is a transcript of the original one and therefore it is assumed to execute in the same manner. This may non ever be right. Valek ( 2000 ) discussed a compatibility theoretical account for two howitzers, one designed on a ‘like to wish ‘ footing and one on a ‘compatible belongingss ‘ footing. The public presentation of both howitzers relied strongly on the hardening and aging conditions. However, the bring arounding conditions of the new howitzer may non fit the 1s of the yesteryear.
Analysis of the original howitzer
The analysis of historic howitzers is carried out loosely for two grounds ( Hughes and Callebaut 2000 ) :
For specific preservation and fix related probes, looking to choose replacing stuffs and/or find the cause of apparent jobs in the impairment of a historic edifice to let the preparation of preservation and fix schemes.
Academic surveies looking to clear up the architectural, chemical and physical public presentation of historic howitzers for the development of replacing stuffs or the archeological survey of constructing engineering and its associated societal deductions.
British Standards BS 4551: Part 2: 1998 “ Methods of proving howitzers, screeds and plasters ” sets guidelines for the sampling of hard-boiled howitzers. This criterion is aimed chiefly at the word picture of howitzer in more modern buildilnbgs, but the attack is applicable to older historic edifices. When trying masonry mortar the whole thickness through the wall should be sampled, necessitating the removl of masonry units, something non ever executable with a historic edifice.
Ashurst 1998 provinces that the samples taken “ should be the minimal necessary to derive the needed information without making harm to the historic construction ” . Technically taking any sample is making harm but this needs to be considered against the benefits gained by trying and deriving extra information through analysis. Ashurst goes on to stipulate that trying must be performed by person familiar with the edifice, and that the analyst should besides be informed. The sample itself should be of at least 50g and in a consistent ball. The location of the sample must be exactly recorded and sufficient sample must be taken in order to guarantee some signifier of representative analysis.
Ashurst ( 1998 ) and Hughes and Callebaut ( 2000 ) , emphasise the utility of first executing an on-site ocular analysis of howitzers before physical sampling. A good thought of the general constituents of the howitzer can be derived by an experient individual utilizing a low degree of optical magnification. Binder, sum and other inclusions, including peculiar howitzer additioves can be recorded in this manner. Ashurst ( 1998 ) goes on to state that soft grating to take weather-beaten surfaces to better designation of the constituents. This analysis will besides clear up the method of building and the profile of the joint, every bit good as foregrounding any repointing or other subsequently fixs. Groot et Al. ( 2000 ) suggests that characteristics such as the figure and thickness of coats or applications of bedding howitzer or renders, the presence of pits, breaks and clefts within the binder, the presence of hair and other additives and the distribution of lime balls can be observed. The general type of binder and the nature and size of the sum will be identified.
Methods of howitzer analysis
Acid disintegration and wet chemical analysis
The simplest signifier of howitzer analysis involves the separation of the sum from the binder to find their comparative proportions to let a replacing howitzer to be formulated. This signifier of analysis besides allows the qualitative finding of the type of binder and the features of the sum or other additives. The carbonate binder can be dissolved from the sum by the usage of a dilute acid, most normally Hydrochloric Acid ( HCL ) . The chief restriction of this technique is that if carbonate sum is present in a howitzer so it will be dissolved along with the binder ( Ashurst 1998, Leslie and Gibbons 2000 ) . Ashurst ( 1998 ) gives a simple process that can be followed. It is frequently possible to acquire a good though non exact thought of the grade of hydraulicity of a howitzer, and the presense of cement and the usage of alloies and pozzolanas utilizing acerb disintegration combined with careful ocular analysis before and after.
The usage of disintegration analysis besides leads on to the farther application of standard chemical analysis techniques. As the binder is put into solution this makes it unfastened to to instrumental chemical analysis. The soluble silicon oxide content can be determined, which is related to the hydraulicity of the howitzer ( van Balen et Al 2000 ) .
Optical miscroscopy/petrographic analysis
The usage of optical microscopy is a powerful technique for the probe of the constituents of historic calcium hydroxide howitzers. After trying howitzer is cut, mounted onto a glass slide and land to a thickness of 30/1000 of a millimetre. This forms a thin-section that permits the transmittal of visible radiation through the constituents of the howitzer. This is best performed on sound samples of howitzers that preserve the full texture of the original stuff. The thin subdivision can be examined utilizing a petrographic, polarizing, microscope. The complex of the howitzer can so be documented.
The petrographic scrutiny of historic howitzers has lagged behind that for concrete but has risen in importance over the past few decennaries. Raymen and Pettifer ( 1987 ) studied lime howitzer taken from the nucleus of Hadrian ‘s Wall utilizing a assortment of instrumental techniques. Using optical petrography they were able to depict the sums, the stone types of the masonry blocks and the presense of hydraulic stages.
Optical petrography has besides been used to place hydraulic constituents in 19th century historic howitzers from Leuven, Belgium, by Callebaut et Al ( 2000 ) . The presence of gehlenite, alite and belite indicate that the stuff analysed was a natural hydraulic calcium hydroxide and non a cement.
The application of optical petrographical techniques are a powerful agencies of deducing information about the composing and history of historic howitzers. Their acceptance in more everyday analysis is advised but non often adopted. In add-on the application of petrographic analysis requires specialist accomplishments and should merely be attempted by decently trained forces who are most frequently geologically educated. ( Middendorf et al ) .
The activities of the RILEM TC-167COM “ Characterisation of Old Mortars with Respect to their Repair ” have been aimed at clear uping the factors which are necessary in order to break explicate a fix howitzer that will be compatible with the bing edifice cloth. The relevancy of elaborate cognition sing the word picture of old howitzers is considered by Leslie and Gibbons ( 2000 ) . One of the most of import factors in the analysis of old howitzers is an apprehension of the environing edifice construction and conditions. The same applies to the bing map of the howitzer. An illustration in this context is the differences in map between sealing howitzers in dry rock palisading with no mechanical map ( Maxwell 2000 ) and thick articulation masonry ( Byzantine, Baronio and Binda 2000 ) that have a important mechanical map.
Leslie and Gibbons besides observed that the informations that are relevant to the demands of edifice preservation are in general: the hydraulicity of the binder, the comparative weights of binder and sum and the sum scaling, in order to place the necessary constituents to bring forth a compatible howitzer. This information can be obtained through simple scrutiny by oculus and binocular microscope coupled with acerb disintegration and aggregative separation, and does non needfully necessitate expensive analyses.
Other literature to be included in concluding literature reappraisal
Harmonizing to the Northern Ireland Environment Agency ( 2009 ) in their work pattern guidelines for remedial preservation plants, lime howitzer is the most of import stuff to be used in remedial preservation plants on historic constructions. This is because it is H2O permeable and besides allows for motion within the articulations of the edifice.
The usage of lime howitzer in rock constructions dominated the building industry until the innovation of Portland cement by John Smeaton in the eighteenth century. However it was John Aspen ‘s commercial production of Portland Cement in 1824 which had the most dramatic consequence on the building industry. Its belongingss were to revolutionize the architectural landscape up to the present twenty-four hours, ( Pavia and Bolton, 2000 ) .
The great virtues of traditional elastic, comparatively absorptive and easy renewed lime howitzers for indicating and rendering should be emphasized. Portland cement howitzers are, on the other manus, stiffer, about impermeable and overly strong, so that fixs tend to interrupt away in big subdivisions or subsequent weathering destroys the original, weaker, brick or rock instead than the pointing. ( Feilden, 2003 )
Different types of calcium hydroxide for different utilizations
Non-hydraulic to feebly hydraulic calcium hydroxide
This type of calcium hydroxide is available in the UK in the signifier of lime putty. Lime putty is made by hydrating the calcium hydroxide with a little sum of H2O. As lime putty is non-hydraulic it is a soft stuff and is non suited for countries of utmost exposure on a edifice. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency ( 2006 ) recommends that its usage should be in really sheltered locations due to its exposure to ice and salt harm during the carbonation procedure. Lime putty remedies easy in reaction to air therefore giving an drawn-out workability.
Feebly to reasonably hydraulic calcium hydroxide
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