Introduction Terrorism came from the word of ‘terror’ which mean to horror and to fear. There is no specific definition about the meaning of terrorism. This is because the field that related inside terrorism is very wide and there are over 100 definitions of ‘terrorism’ according to studies. Terrorism have been existed for many years as a global phenomenon, but only in few decades ago that it has been getting stronger and to influence our daily lives with any costs. In our report, we will explain more details about the relationship of terrorism and transportation.
Transportation has always been a target or method for terrorism to transfer their message to the public. While transportation keeps economic moving, nationally and globally, business relies on transport and transport systems at every level no matter transferring goods, transporting customers or staff commuting. From jet airliners to mass transit buses and rail terminals, vehicles and transport facilities are all-too familiar targets of terrorist attacks in all country and abroad.
The impact of large-scale disruption of transport infrastructures can be critical for national and global business because transport systems have long been viewed as targets for terrorists groups worldwide. Also we will elaborate more on how terrorism can be spread or being use through the four methods of transportation like rail, road, aviation and maritime. For the incident strikes on the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York on September 11, 2001, this has exposed critical security flaws within the United States transportation system which required urgent attention.
The first attack on public transportation involving weapons of mass destruction occurred in 1995 when the Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo released sarin gas into the Tokyo subway system. Then we will explain about what are the factors and effect of terrorism behavior. Also the strategy based three ways: land, maritime and aviation security will be introduced based on our findings at this report. Finally we will discuss about the organization and agency that responsible and involved in combating terrorism group and detail about the latest terrorism group that still remain active in the world.
The definition of “terrorism” The word “terrorism” came from the word of “terror” which in the Latin terrer mean ‘to frighten, to fear’. At present, there is no internationally agreed definition of terrorism. The most common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear, are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack) and deliberately target or disregard the safety of the civilians. Actually there is no specific definition of terrorism; this is because studies have found over 100 definitions of ‘terrorism’.
This is because the word ‘terrorism’ is very wide related to multiple fields and cannot specify the real content to describe ‘terrorism’. Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. But in November 2004, a United Nations Security Council report described terrorism as any act “intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act”.
Most government definitions outline some basic key criteria like target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or legality of the act. There are few key criteria to describe terrorism: 1. Violence 2. Psychological impact and fear 3. Perpetrated for a political goal 4. Deliberate targeting of non-combatants 5, Unlawfulness or illegitimacy The relationship of Terrorism and Transportation Transportation keeps the economy moving.
Most of international and domestic business are deeply relies on transportation system because it transferring goods, transporting customer or staff commuting. Transportation vehicle are ubiquitous, moving virtually unnoticed within industrial locations and major population centers; across borders; and to nearly every household, business and government office in the country. The major impact of large scale disruption of transport infrastructure by terrorism can be critical for international and domestic business.
Transportation has become the method for terrorist to begin their attack on people in public. The reasons that transportation easily become the target of terrorism are transport vehicle easily to use , control and manipulate and also can be found everywhere in the city area. Unlike airlines, where security checkpoints screen passengers and luggage, mass transit options like subways, passenger trains, and buses, are designed to be easily accessible and are therefore harder to protect.
With the uncontrollable global terrorist threat now coming from Islamist jihadist groups with the desire to inflict mass civilian casualties, transportation networks are now under greater threat of attack than ever before. Not only the public transportation vehicle like busies become the target of terrorist like the case at London Underground in rush hour, but they also willing to engage in suicide bombings, making them very unpredictable and harder to stop. The very nature of the transportation enterprise is to be open, efficient, and accessible.
Security that restricts access and impedes transportation can send costly ripple effects throughout the national economy and society. Using four jet airliners as cruise missiles, however, the September 11th attackers showed how the ubiquitous air transportation system could be turned into a weapon far deadlier than ever envisioned by those charged with aviation security. Since September 11, U. S. authorities have issued several general warnings of possible terrorist attacks on parts of the ground transportation system, including subways, railroad trains, and bridges.
Only a few weeks later, the mailer of anthrax spores, capitalizing on the anonymity and reach of the postal system, showed how a seemingly innocuous transportation mode could be turned into a weapons delivery system. Terrorism Activity in Type of Transportation Since terrorism existed long time ago, terrorism already have a deep bond with transportation. Shipping weapons, explosive material, and people to place is part of transportation activity by terrorism which is the common one.
Also they use transportation as the method or ‘tunnel’ to begin their attack on public people. There are 4 methods of transportation in terrorism activity. Also we will use some of the worse cases which related to 4 methods of transportation. First method is the railroad. Railroad is the type of transportation that located on train station and railroad. The reason why terrorist choose railroad as the method to begin their attack on the public is the crowded train station and subway and high accessible by many way to in and out from the train station and subway.
Second method is aviation or air type transportation. Airport and aircraft are hard to infiltrate by terrorist because of high security system and efficient safety system but the casualties and the impact bring by terrorist is high and unpredictable. Third method is maritime or sea transportation. Maritime transportation has always not been the method that preferred by terrorist because of its difficulty to launch attack and the impact is much lower if compare to other method of transportation. Last method is road transportation.
This method has always been the method that preferred by terrorist to begin their attack on public. This is because most of transportation in city or other place is road transportation vehicle by bringing high casualties and damage to public also infrastructure. I. Railroad type of transportation The one of terrorism cases in the railroad method is the March 2004 Madrid Train Bombings. During the peak of Madrid rush hour on the morning of Thursday, 11 March 2004, ten explosions occured abroad four commuter trains.
It was later reported that 13 improvised explosive devices (IEDs) had been placed on the trains. Bomb-disposal teams (TEDAX) arriving at the scenes of the explosions detonated two of the remaining three IEDs in the controlled explosions, but the third was not found until later in the evening, having been stored unknowingly with luggage taken from one of the trains. The bombing consisted of a series of coordinated bombings against the commuter train system of Madrid. The terrorist using backpack bombs to trigger the bombing incident which killing 191 deaths and wouding 1800 people.
It happened three days before general elections which resulted in the defeat of the incumbent Jose Maria Aznar’s Partido Popular (PP), which had been enjoying a small and narrowing lead in the opinion polls. From this incident, tt is undeniable that train station can be easily become the target of terrorism. Later the incident become begining of other train bombing cases like Tokyo Sarin Attack and so on. No evidence has been found of al-Qaeda involvement, although an al-Qaeda claim was made the day of the attacks by the Abu Hafs al-Masri Brigades. However, U. S. fficials note that this group is “notoriously unreliable”. The two picture as shown below are the scene after Madrid Train Bombings: The second railroad case is the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway. Also terrorists using chemical warfare type of attack in the March 1995 which was launched at Tokyo Metro in the peak of the morning rush hour. The chemical agent used, two packets of sarin contains 900 mililitres of sarin, was put in the plastic bags which wrapped in newspaper. Four of them each carried two plastic bags loaded with sarin, and the fifth had three bags.
At nearly the same moment, they each dropped the bags to the floor of the jam-packed train and punctured them with a specially sharpened umbrella tip. The cultists then quickly stepped off the trains as they pulled into the next station. Getaway drivers were waiting outside the station for each of them. The liquid began vaporizing, and people began getting sick. Some of them got off the trains at subsequent stations, stumbling onto the platforms. At each stop, more gas spread, and more liquid was tracked off the trains and into the stations.
The deadly sarin vapor also clung to the clothes and bodies of its victims, sickening those who rushed to their aid. In five coordinated attacks, the perpetrators released sarin on several lines of the Tokyo Metro, killing twelve people, severaly injuring fifty and causing temporary vision problems for nearly a thousand others. On the day of the attack, ambulances transported 688 patients and nearly five thousand people reached hospitals by other means. Most of those reporting to hospitals were the “worried well,” which had to be distinguished from those that were ill.
The attack was directed against trains passing through Kasumigaseki and Nagatacho, home to the Japanese government. The Japanese government revoked Aum Shinrikyo’s status a religion and seized as many of the cult’s assets as it could find. Some members later reorganized on a much smaller scale as Aleph. II. Aviation type of transportation The latest aviation terrorist case is the September 11 attacks were a series of coordinated suicide attacks by al-Qaeda upon the United States on September 11, 2001. 9 al-Qaeda members hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners and intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D. C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D. C.
A total of 2,973 victims and the 19 hijackers died as a result of the attacks. The overwhelming majority of casualties were civilians, including nationals of over 90 countries. Within hours of the attacks, the FBI was able to determine the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers. HYPERLINK “http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/September_11_attacks” l “cite_note-74″Mohamed Atta, from Egypt, was the ringleader of the 19 hijackers and one of the pilots. But also on the day of the attacks, the National Security Agency intercepted communications that pointed to Osama bin Laden.
The United States responded to the attacks by launching a War on Terrorism. It invaded Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, who had harbored al-Qaeda terrorists. III. Maritime type of transportation The recent terrorist marine attack is the SuperFerry 14 bombings which occurred on February 27, 2004 that resulted in the sinking of the ferry SuperFerry 14 and the deaths of 116 people in the Philippines’ deadliest terrorist attack and the world’s deadliest terrorist attack at sea. The 10,192-ton ferry sailed out of Manila for Cagayan de Oro City via Bacolod City and Iloilo City with about 900 passengers and crew.
A television set containing an 8-pound (4 kilograms) TNT bomb had been placed on board. After 90 minutes out of port, the bomb exploded, 63 people were killed immediately and 53 were missing and assumed dead. Despite claims from various terrorist groups, the blast was initially thought to have been an accident, caused by a gas explosion. However, after divers righted the ferry five months after it sank, they found evidence of a bomb blast. A man named Redondo Cain Dellosa also admitted to planting the bomb on board for the Abu Sayyaf guerrilla group.
Abu Sayyaf was admitted the responsibility for the said incident killing 116 people. It was believed that Abu Sayyaf bombed Superferry 14 because the company that owned it, WG&A, did not comply with a letter demanding USD $1million in protection money. The second maritime terrorist case is bombing of the Limburg. The Limburg bombing was a bomb attack by al-Qaeda against the French oil tanker Limburg. On October 6, 2002, the Limburg was carrying 397,000 barrels of crude oil from Iran to Malaysia, and was in the Gulf of Aden off Yemen to pick up another load of oil.
While it was some miles offshore, an explosives-laden dinghy rammed the starboard side of the tanker and detonated. The vessel caught on fire and approximately 90,000 barrels of oil leaked into the Gulf of Aden. Although Yemeni officials initially claimed that the explosion was the result of an accident, later investigations found traces of TNT on the damaged ship. One crew member, a 38 year old Bulgarian named Atanas Atanasov, was killed, and 12 other crew members were injured. The fire was put out, and four days later the Limburg was towed to Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
The damage to the tanker was around $45 million USD. The ship was sold to Tanker Pacific by 2003 under the new name Maritime Jewel, who repaired it for $8. 5 million USD. Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack on the Jehad. net website, which has since been shut down. Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, who also planned the USS Cole bombing, is thought to have been the mastermind of the attack. On February 3, 2006, Fawaz Yahya al-Rabeiee, who had been sentenced to death for the Limburg attack, and 22 other suspected or convicted Al-Qaeda members escaped from jail in Yemen. IV.
Road type of transportation Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing: the incident was happened when a dump truck filled with explosives detonated in front of the Marriott Hotel in the Pakistani capital Islamabad on 20 September 2008. The bombing incident had killed at least 54 and 266 people injured and leaving a deep crater outside the hotel. The blast caused a natural gas leak that set the top floor of the five-story, 258-room hotel on fire, police said. The massive explosion was heard 15 kilometers away. The blaze that followed quickly engulfed the entire structure of the hotel.
About two-thirds of the building caught fire as a result of the explosion after a natural gas pipe was blown open, and the reception area was completely destroyed. Pakistan’s new president Asif Zardari was supposed to have been dining at the Marriott when the bomb went off, but had decided at the last minute to eat at the prime minister’s house. Had he kept to his original dinner plans, he could very well have been killed, pushing Pakistan closer to total and uncontainable chaos. The Marriott Hotel case has shown that public transportation vehicle like bus and car are most likely become the target of terrorist to begin their attack on public.
This is because the public transportation vehicle are easily to be found, use and control by terrorist for their terrorism purpose. Why terrorism becomes important to transportation system? The word “terror” instantly causes fear in anyone’s mind. This word has been heard by every one of us especially after the horrifying terrorist attack on 11th September 2001. And from that day terrorism becomes more and more important to transportation system. 9/11 changed the way everyone, not just Americans, think about their vulnerability aboard airliners.
Tokyo, Madrid and London further illustrated that the rails and buses were not immune from terrorist attack; nations want to ensure preparedness in combating the growing threat of transportation sector terrorism. Terrorist acts involving buses, airplanes, subways, freight trains, shipping and other transportation modes, with an emphasis on law enforcement coordination, cooperation, preparedness and prevention. Data statistics world—Terrorism countries According the data, most frequency terrorist incidents in the world occur in Middle East. More than a half of terrorist incidents occur in Middle East in the half of 2009.
Iraq| 55| China| 3| Afghanistan| 30| Iran| 3| Pakistan| 25| Nepal| 3| Spain| 14| Turkey| 2| Israel| 8| Yemen| 2| Philippines| 7| Algeria| 1| Sri Lanka| 7| Colombia| 1| Thailand| 7| Ecuador| 1| India| 6| Russia| 1| Somalia| 5| Sweden| 1| United States| 5| United Kingdom| 1| Greece| 4| total| 193| According the data, terrorism incidences began increasing in the worldwide after 2001. It is form less 1000 incidences to more than 4000 incidences, and keeping growth until reach the peak to 15000 terrorism incidences in year 2006. It is because US government starts the war of Afghanistan to Taliban, Revenge for the 911 incident.
And this war is the trigger to lead terrorism incidences increasing in the Middle East country. FACTORS CAUSED TERRORISM I. PSYCHOLOGY Given how different the causes and perspectives of right-wing, nationalist-separatist, social revolutionary and religious fundamentalist terrorists, it should come as no surprise that the psychologies of these types of terrorism differ as much as their motivations. We should therefore be discussing terrorisms and terrorist psychologies rather than searching for a unified general theory explaining all terrorist behavior.
Thus, there is not a ‘one size fits all’ the relationship between leadership and followers, the group and organizational dynamics, as well as the decision patterns differ from group to group. And while psychology plays a crucial role in understanding terrorism, to comprehend this complex phenomenon fully requires an inter-disciplinary approach, incorporating knowledge from political, historical, cultural, economic, ideological and religious scholarship. In other words, it is important to consider terrorism in its own political, historical and cultural context.
For terrorism is a product of its own place and time. It is an attractive strategy to a diverse array of groups which have little else in common. Explanations at the level of individual psychology are insufficient It is not going too far to assert that terrorists are psychologically ‘normal’ in the sense of not being clinically psychotic. They are neither depressed, severely emotionally disturbed, nor are they crazed fanatics. In fact, terrorist groups and organizations regularly screen out emotionally unstable individuals. They represent, after all, a security risk.
There is a multiplicity of individual motivations. For some, it is to give a sense of power to the powerless, for others, revenge is a primary motivation, for still others, it is to gain a sense of significance. Within each group, there are motivational differences among the members, each of whom will be driven to differing degrees by group interest versus self-serving actions, as well as those inspired by ideology. A clear consensus exists that it is not individual psychology, but group, organizational and social psychology that provides the greatest analytical power in understanding this complex phenomenon.
Terrorists have subordinated their individual identity to the collective identity, so that what serves the group, organization or network is of primary importance. For some groups, especially nationalist or separatist terrorist groups, this collective identity is established extremely early hatred, one may say, is ‘bred in the bone’. This, in turn, emphasizes the socio-cultural context, which determines the balance between collective and individual identity. It is important to distinguish leaders from followers The role of the leader is crucial in drawing together alienated, frustrated individuals into a coherent organization.
They provide a ‘sense-making’, unifying message that conveys a religious, political or ideological goal to their disparate followers. The leader plays a crucial role in identifying the external enemy as the cause, and drawing together into collective identity otherwise disparate individuals, who may be discontented and aggrieved, but who without the powerful presence of the leader will remain isolated and individually aggrieved. The ‘political entrepreneur’ or hate-mongering leader plays a crucial organizing role.
This, of course, is exemplified by Osama bin Laden who has become a positive identification object for thousands of alienated Arab and Muslim youth. For his followers, bin Laden serves as the heroic revenger, with the courage to stand up against the superpower. And, in following his lead, the individual follower can be seen as unselfish, altruistic and heroic to the point of self-sacrifice. It is also important to understand the process by which followers enter the leadership echelon, which while extremely important to the viability of the group is not well understood.
The systematic study of autobiographical accounts can help identify the salient features of this dynamic. The terrorist life cycle is important to understand It is useful to unpack the life course of terrorists and consider the psychological processes they are undergoing at different phases such as what initially attracts a potential terrorist to the terrorist group differs from what he or she experiences in terms of radicalization and consolidation of group and collective identity. Likewise, what makes the terrorist carry out acts of violence is different from what leads a terrorist to become disillusioned and leave the group.
The process of becoming a terrorist involves a cumulative, incrementally sustained and focused commitment to the group. For the majority of contemporary terrorists, there is an early entrance onto the pathway into terrorism whether religious or secular with many subsequent ‘way stations’. In particular, there is a continuing reinforcement by manipulative leaders, consolidating the collective identity, as well as externalizing, justifying and requiring violence against the enemy. This implies that early intervention is required, for once a youth is embedded within the group, and his extremist psychology will be continually reinforced.
The power of group dynamics especially for the closed group is intense, and once an individual is in the group, it is very difficult to penetrate his psychology and extricate him. Given that the attraction to, and entrance into, the terrorist path is a gradual process (which for some groups begins in early childhood), changing the influences upon this pathway will necessarily occur over an extended time frame. As important as understanding the path into terrorism, understands what leads terrorists to leave.
In this respect, it is critical to understand the processes that occur within the group or organization, as this has important implications for counter-terrorist policy. Exit from terrorism can be as complex as becoming involved with terrorism. The life course of the terrorists must therefore be understood in detail, so that optimal strategies for influencing these processes can be developed. In fact, the types of actions that have an impact upon the course of terrorism are not well understood, and many actions designed to counter terrorism consequently have counter-productive effects.
Groups may adhere to the same underlying ideology but differ remarkably in organizational structure. Thus, while Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Al Qaeda all find justification in the Koran for their ‘killing in the name of God’, the organizational form of Hamas and Islamic Jihad is traditionally more hierarchical and authoritarian followers are directed from higher organizational levels, they only have a limited say in the conduct of operations, and decisions cannot be questioned. In contrast, Al Qaeda has a much looser organizational form with distributed decision making.
This decentralization was intensified following the effective destruction of Al Qaeda command and control in Afghanistan in 2001, leading some terrorism experts to conclude that Al Qaeda in its traditional form is functionally dead. What has been termed the ‘new’ Al Qaeda is considered by many to be an ideology rather than an organization. The successor global Salafi jihad network is widely distributed and semi-autonomous, operating more out of hubs than nodes, with wide latitude to plan and execute operations.
The March 11 train bombings in Madrid reflect this emerging network. Furthermore, although most Muslim immigrants and refugees are not ‘stateless’, many suffer from an existential sense of loss, deprivation and alienation from the countries in which they live. They are often exposed to extreme ideologies that radicalize them and can facilitate entrance into the path of terrorism. The diaspora has been identified as particularly important for the global Salafi jihad, with eighty per cent of recruits joining and becoming radicalized in the diaspora.
II. POLITICAL International politics The causes of terrorism are international as well as domestic. Advances in technology enhance their mobility and their ability to communicate internally and externally. They take advantage of the weakness of state borders and the sheer volume of travel. It is also possible that the goals of some modern terrorism (Al Qaeda and its offshoots) may include overturning the international order, perceived as a manifestation of Western omination of the Muslim world. Another source of concern at the level of the international system is state weakness, whether collapse or involvement in extensive civil conflict (the former often a result of the latter). Some failed or failing states those without central governments or with governments that cannot maintain control over their territory or populations become hosts for radical conspiracies that both impede stabilization and export terrorism to other targets and audiences.
Prolonged civil conflict and instability produce waves of refugees and immigrants who form alienated diasporas in which terrorist groups may find shelter. Economic weakness and political repression may also contribute to immigration. Dissatisfaction with local conditions is displaced onto the international system. These conditions are thus a serious problem for the international community. Another consideration to note is that any type of regime, democratic or authoritarian, may be involved in an asymmetric conflict outside its borders.
Stable and well-developed democracies may not face a serious threat from internally-generated terrorism, but external intervention or political, economic, and cultural presence may provoke terrorism from the outside. Thus, a state’s susceptibility to terrorism is determined not just by how it treats its citizens at home but by its actions abroad. When such actions lack international legitimacy and local populations perceive them as unjust, radical groups come to see terrorism as an appropriate response. Not all interventions are the same, of course, and some are perceived positively by the populations in question.
Indeed, such a reception may be more likely when interventions are genuinely multilateral. III. ECONOMIC Poverty is not a direct cause of terrorism. Macro-studies show that terrorism can occur anywhere, but is more common in developing societies, rather than in poor or rich countries, and is most likely to emerge in societies characterized by rapid modernization (Alberto Abadie, Tore Bjorgo). Economic change creates conditions that are conducive for instability, the emergence of militant movements and extremist ideologies.
In the Islamic world, for example, the more traditional segments of the population are disoriented by sweeping socio-economic change, and are therefore especially susceptible to movements that strengthen threatened identities, provide explanations, and give believers a sense of empowerment (Yigal Carmon). A pervasive risk factor in developing societies is the so-called youth age bulge, that is, a substantial increase in the proportional size of the young male population facing insecure employment prospects.
Within countries, the groups that support and give rise to terrorist movements usually are relatively disadvantaged because of class, ethnic, or religious cleavages. At the individual level, the leaders of militant movements are better educated and of higher status than most of the population from which they come. This, however, is true of leaders of almost all political organizations (Ekkart Zimmermann, Jeroen Gunning, Jitka Maleckova). A significant number of activists are similarly well educated, even though many face uncertain employment opportunities (resulting in what many experts call ‘status dissonance’).
Recruits are also drawn from among poorer and less-educated youth those with a lack of opportunities to complete secondary or higher education, or unable to find good jobs. Militant movements frequently draw in what Bjorgo calls fellow-travelers and criminals people motivated by social needs and pressures and chances for personal gain rather than ideology. The status of women is especially important. Although women are sometimes recruited as suicide bombers, in general they seldom support terrorism.
Cross-national studies show that the higher women’s relative educational status and political participation, the less frequent are political violence and instability. Three mechanisms may be at work: (a) Educated and empowered women may socialize youth in ways that inhibit their susceptibility to recruitment to terrorism (b) They also help strengthen civil society organizations that provide alternative political militancy (c) In the longer run, women’s education contributes to declining birth rates, leading to a reduction in the problems associated with large youth populations.
In summary, structured inequalities within countries are breeding grounds for violent political movements in general and terrorism specifically. As shown below, structured inequalities across the interdependent global system have similar consequences. THE EFFECTS OF TERRORISM I. ECONOMIC The effects of terrorism on a developing country are simply devastating, and no amount of free trade agreements alone can begin to offset this problem. Terrorism has become the world’s costliest business. America has been experiencing a weak economy; there can be no debate that it is terrorism that has driven this cost upward.
The three industries that are the hardest hit by terrorism are insurance, tourism and aviation (security). The estimated insurance losses from the destruction of the World Trade Center alone are somewhere between $30 billion and $58 billion. Worse still, the world has lost over 25 percent of its reinsurance capacity. Governments recognize that they exist in an environment with increased security costs and decreased revenues. In Italy, there are over 600 special police assigned to the task of combating the financial roots of terrorism.
But the hardest hits are the developing nations, who were the most vulnerable prior to Sept. 11. The reality is that the terrorists have created a new world environment, in which they dominate everything from where a person feels safe to travel to how much money a business has to budget for security and insurance. Instead of less conversation about terrorism, the world’s leaders need to engage in a great deal more. Terrorism is a major problem that is reoccurring over the globe in many different forms.
The US alone spends about $5 billion dollars a year combating terrorists. For example, in the wake of the Sept 11 tragedy, the travel and tourism industry is reeling. Airline travel and hotel stays have plummeted worldwide. Industry revenues, profits, and stock values are all down. Industry workers are being laid off in large numbers. Simply put many more people than before have an understandable fear of flying. Others have lost all patience with travel delays and disruptions that were already a nuisance before the tragedy, and they are opting to stay home. Tourism is the world’s No. 1 industry, and the services are reliant on people’s safety and security, and people’s financial safety and security,” said Graham Miller, a tourism lecturer at the University of Westminster in London. “Both of these have been threatened by this event. ” Thousands of tours and hotel accommodations around the world from Egypt to Las Vegas to Australia have been canceled. Francesco Frangialli, secretary general of the World Tourism Organization (WTO), called the attacks a “terrible blow” [to the tourism industry].
Insurance Insurance purchased by property owners to cover their potential losses and liabilities that might occur. Terrorism is considered to be a difficult product for insurance companies, as the odds of terrorist attacks are very difficult to predict and the potential liability enormous. Prior to September 11 attacks on the United States, insurers generally did not exclude or separately charge for terrorism risks. The risk of terrorism was seen as so remote that it generally was not considered in writing insurance policies.
The events of September 11, 2001, however, unquestionably changed this as insurers realized the extent of possible losses. Estimates of insured losses from the 9/11 attack, which ranged as high as $75 billion in the immediate aftermath, are currently around $35 billion, still the largest man-made insurance disaster on record. The heaviest insured losses were absorbed by foreign and domestic reinsures the insurers of insurance companies. Due to the lack of data on or modeling of terrorism risk, reinsures felt unable to price for such risks and, so, withdrew from the market for terrorism risk insurance.
Once reinsures stopped offering coverage for terrorism risk, primary insurers, who also suffered from a lack of data and models, also withdrew or tried to withdraw from the market. In most states, state regulators must approve policy form changes, and state regulators generally agreed to insurer requests to exclude terrorism risks from their commercial policies, just as they had long excluded war risks. Terrorism risk insurance was soon unavailable or extremely expensive, and many businesses were no longer able to purchase insurance that would protect them in future terrorist attacks.
Although most data were anecdotal, this problem was widely thought to pose a threat of serious harm to the real estate, transportation, construction, energy, and utility sectors, in turn threatening the broader economy. On December 26, 2007, the President of the United States signed into law the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2007 which extends the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (TRIA) through December 31, 2014. The law extends the temporary federal Program that provides for a transparent system of shared public and private ompensation for insured losses resulting from acts of terrorism Tourism The proclamation acknowledged that the “unprecedented and brutal act of terrorism is likely to have profoundly negative consequences for domestic and international tourism. ” It strongly condemned “heinous acts of terrorism,” characterized terrorism as “an enemy of peace and tourism,” expressed compassion to the people of the United States and victims of the tragic event, and proffered a firm conviction that “tourism is a resilient sector which has repeatedly demonstrated its ability to overcome problems and weather crises. Americans are the world’s biggest spending tourists which generates substantial economic benefits. It is an especially important industry to developing countries. The main benefits of tourism to a country are foreign exchange earnings, tax revenues, business opportunities for budding entrepreneurs, and employment for workers in the industry. According to the WTO, “Tourism is one of the top five export categories for as many as 83% of countries and is the main source of foreign exchange earnings for at least 38% of countries. Foreign exchange earnings from exports are used to purchase imports and augment reserves. They generate income in the host country and can stimulate consumer spending and investment in other sectors of the economy. Tax receipts from tourism are both direct and indirect. Direct tax receipts are generated from the incomes earned by businesses and workers. Indirect taxes are duties levied on goods and services purchased by tourists. The World Travel and Tourism Council estimates that tax contributions related to tourism worldwide were US $800 billion in 1998.
Tourism is a monopolistically competitive industry. It has many relatively small enterprises producing slightly differentiated products and services. Barriers to entry and exit are relatively low. For these reasons, the tourism industry provides tremendous opportunity for relatively small businesses to thrive and is a leading generator of jobs. The hotel accommodation sector alone provided around 11. 3 million jobs worldwide in 1995, according to the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP).
Tourism generates jobs directly through hotels, restaurants, nightclubs, taxis, and souvenir sales. Indirectly, jobs are generated through the supply of goods and services required by tourism-related suppliers. The WTO estimates that tourism represents 7% of jobs worldwide. II. POLITICAL Terrorists attempt not only to create panic but also to weaken confidence in the government and the political leadership of the target country. The breadth and scope of the term ‘security’ is often problematic for policy analysts and political scientists.
For better or worse, politicians of prior decades had the benefit of cut-and-dry definitions, most often based on war and nation. With the rise of jihadi violence and other amorphous international organizations, many define ‘security’ as survival vis-a-vis any existential threat, be it state or non-state actors. Expanding from this vague, all-encompassing treatment of ‘security’, there has been much discourse on the securitization of fields not previously identified as a ‘threat’. Particularly since the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001, one area of increasing attention is immigration.
Once portrayed as an economic and cultural concern, the ebb and flow of peoples across borders is being recast as a threat towards national security and survival. There are many motivations that may entice a political party, individual, or government to portray migration in a security-oriented context. Conversely, there are many reasons why one might seek to avoid the securitization of this particular field. Regardless of motive, there are lasting effects in both policy and populace in terms of immigration law and law enforcement.
The process of ‘securitization’ occurs when an issue is portrayed as an urgent, fundamental, and profound risk to society, thus requiring special, decisive treatment by leaders and the governing elite. The method through which migration can be framed in a security context is simple; the central thesis being that current immigration is a threat to society through violence, socio-economic failures, and divisions in cultural identity. Migration often arouses the greatest debate because it is the nexus of the government’s responsibility of international security and internal security.
In terms of practical, policy-oriented benefits, there occurs a consolidation of power by the various security organizations. These agencies are now able to expand their influences and capabilities to the field of immigration policy. This can involve domestic surveillance, border restrictions, and increased policing powers. By framing migration as an existential threat to everyday life, security facets of the government are now able to operate beyond the strict limitations imposed on other endeavors, and are better equipped to deal with specific threats. This can be advantageous on many fronts.
Western democracies often view migration (correctly or incorrectly) as a threat to state sovereignty by promoting informal economies (primarily through crime networks and illegal immigration), reducing the state’s capacity to operate as the unitary ‘control maximizer’ (the only party able to exercise physical control and security), and jeopardizing previously existing cultural identities. By placing migration in a security context, the state is now better able to pursue policies that will mitigate these ills; such as deploying the military to the border to reduce illegal immigration.
Mobilization, increased legitimacy, power-consolidation, and the ability to pursue harsher policies can be quite beneficial to an administration that lacks in any or all of the four. For example, aviation industry Transportation Security Administration (TSA) issued new security directives to all United States and international air carriers with inbound flights to the U. S. effective January 4, 2010. The new directive includes long-term, sustainable security measures developed in consultation with law enforcement officials and our domestic and international partners.
Because effective aviation security must begin beyond our borders, and as a result of extraordinary cooperation from our global aviation partners, TSA is mandating that every individual flying into the U. S. from anywhere in the world who holds a passport issued by or is traveling from or through nations that are state sponsors of terrorism or other countries of interest will be required to go through enhanced screening. The directive also increases the use of enhanced screening technologies and mandates threat-based and random screening for passengers on U.
S. bound international flights. III. SOCIAL Physically Biological agents are organisms or toxins that can kill or incapacitate people, livestock, and crops. The three basic groups of biological agents that would likely be used as weapons are bacteria, viruses, and toxins. Most biological agents are differ cult to grow and maintain. Many break down quickly when exposed to sunlight and other environmental factors, while others, such as anthrax spores, are very long lived.
Biological agents can be dispersed by spraying them into the air, by infecting animals that carry the disease to humans and by contaminating food and water. Delivery methods include: • Aerosols—biological agents are dispersed into the air, forming a fine mist that may drift for miles. Inhaling the agent may cause disease in people or animals. • Animals—some diseases are spread by insects and animals, such as fleas, mice, flies, mosquitoes, and livestock. • Food and water contamination—some pathogenic organisms and toxins may persist in food and water supplies.
Most microbes can be killed, and toxins deactivated, by cooking food and boiling water. Most microbes are killed by boiling water for one minute, but some require longer. Follow official instructions. • Person-to-person—spread of a few infectious agents is also possible. Humans have been the source of infection for smallpox, plague, and the Lassa viruses. The effects that chemical and biological weapons have had on US troops started after the Persian Gulf.
When the end of the war came and tens of thousands of troops returned home they came down with an illness. The symptoms included chronic fatigue, severe joint pain and headaches, intestinal track problems, internal bleeding, and memory loss. These symptoms have been classified as “Gulf War Syndrome. ” The veterans were told they were suffering from psychological problems as a result of war, and were sent to consult with psychologists. The country that has been involved in most conflicts that pertain to biological and chemical weapons has been Iraq.
This terrorist filled country has done everything from forging documents and making fraudulent statements to completely dismantling equipment and destroying documents to cover up their production of Biological weapons. “Just days before the end of 1998, Iraqi surface-to-air missiles *were fired at British and American fighter jets. US jets fired back with laser-guided bombs that knocked out antiaircraft artillery. “(Gay 27) Iraq has shown extreme hostile behavior against other countries leading the US and other nations to believe that Iraq does in fact have been creating and building up their biological and chemical weapons.
Military intelligence agencies have no doubt that in the future there will be more confrontations with Iraq as they continue to try and build their weapons arsenal. The secondary environmental effects of terrorism can often be as significant as its primary effects. The attack on the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York City on September 11, 2001, had negative health consequences beyond the staggering loss of life. The collapse of the structures and subsequent fires spewed an enormous cloud of dust and toxins into the air over the city.
The immediate environmental fallout from the WTC collapse contained asbestos and fibrous glass from the building structure, mercury, dioxins, furans, and other cancer-causing toxins from the burning of fluorescent light bulbs and computer screens; heavy metals such as cadmium and lead and volatile organic compounds like benzene. Federal, state, and local agencies went right to work monitoring air quality and cleaning up dust and debris from the WTC collapse, but these actions themselves have serious environmental consequences.
One in four cleanup workers at Ground Zero reportedly suffer from asthma and respiratory illness brought about by dust inhaled at the site. Some airborne pollutants and dust were resuspended as a result of ongoing cleanup efforts. The secondary pollution concerns include possible contamination of waterways around lower Manhattan as well as the challenge of where to dispose of the catastrophe’s 1. 2 million tons of waste. Fresh Kills landfill on Staten Island has been accepting WTC debris, some containing asbestos and other toxic materials, despite being slated to close December 31, 2001.
Since Fresh Kills was not designed to accept hazardous waste, there is concern about whether or not contaminants could leach from the landfill into surrounding groundwater. Psychologically Individuals most likely to be affected, and behaviorally, by a terrorist event include those who were injured, those who were present or nearby, those (such as first responders) who were exposed to trauma as a result of their attempts to help victims, and those (such as vulnerable populations) who were already at risk of developing psychological symptoms.
Also, terrorism may be more likely than other traumatic events to cause a psychological reaction in individuals who were far from the attack but are nevertheless concerned about being in danger. We can document numerous acute short-term and serious long-term, negative effects when people are directly exposed to trauma, and the rise in diagnosable psychiatric disorders is striking. The most common are anxiety disorders, especially Acute Stress Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Agoraphobia, and Separation Anxiety Disorder.
Mood disorders, especially Major Depressive Disorder and Dysthymic Disorder, often emerge in circumstances where the person is experiencing bereavement, substantial economic loss, occupational disruption, or forced resettlement because of violent acts of terrorism. Aside from clinical syndromes, many people experience a decrease in adaptive functioning which is reflected in diminished performance on occupational or educational tasks, increased use of alcohol, tobacco, and other psychoactive substances, and restriction of normal routines and activities.
At a more subtle level, underlying attitudes and beliefs about the world are shaped by terrorism; this is reflected in a changed view of social justice, suspicions about racial or ethnic groups, and diminished expectations for the future. Strategy Against Terrorism Threats As previous information is explaining the meaning and the scope of terrorism activities, the area it does, and the effects on living society, we also studied the strategy against terrorism threats. Our study indicates the relationship between the terrorism and transportation sector, thus the strategy is more rely on the basis of transportation area.
We focus on the strategy in main three area of transportation sector which are airport, maritime, and land security. I. Environmental risk assessment scanning Before we proceed to the strategy against terrorism, let’s have a view on the level of environment alertness to determine each level of the Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS). HSAS functions as comprehensive means to disseminate information, provide warnings in a graduated system, applies an appropriate level of alert consistent with the level of risk.
It has play an important role to determine the level of terrorist’s threat from low to high in respond to take corrective actions in specific situations. There are five stages of security alerts which are low, guarded, elevated, high, and severe with different stages of risk of terrorist attacks (as picture shown below). A low risk of terrorist activity exists, but warrants only routine security measures associated with daily operations. Guarded condition stands that a possible threat of terrorist activities and generally enhances security awareness responsibilities.
On the elevated stage, an increased and more predictable threat of terrorist activity exists and may increase access controls to include additional personnel and vehicle barriers. For the high stage, this condition is set when a terrorist incident occurs or intelligence information is received indicating that some form of terrorist action is imminent, and requires specific protection measures to be put in place. At the highest stage of risk which is severe condition, reflects a severe risk of terrorist attack or where an attack has already occurred and it significantly increases protective measures.
These levels risk of terrorist attack, have significantly affect the different countries government authority policies, strategies prevention, security system in public area and most transportation sector whereas the 9/11 incident given the major impact. The level of risk is different from area whereby some country does have just a minimal risk, typically Malaysia. II. Strategy prevention 1. Airport Security Airport security is the techniques and methods used in protecting airports and aircraft from crime. The security is attempting to stop would-be attackers from bringing weapons or bombs into the airport.
There are main two purposes in airport security, which is to protect the airport from attacks and crime and to protect the aircraft from attack. Basically, the major security at airport is on airside (the aircraft, flying route), and landside (terminal airport). However, the aviation security, airport included the military air strike/defense, is not easy to attainable as it must considered the macro-level considerations. The cost-benefit analysis of airport security is far more difficult for anti-terrorism than for other issues such as the route schedules or airplane maintenance.
The costs related with anti-terrorism majority are technological costs like startup costs, operating costs, and switching costs instead. Other costs may like the maintenance costs. Terrorists are now more tactical and strategy-oriented in planning for the attacks to avoid detection by intelligence information. They have many expertise partners on technology and ability to coordinate activities, heavily finance by terrorist organization. Thus, they are easily to adapt and counter defensive technologies to break through the tight securities.
Hence, the security system and defenses need to be flexible and dynamic always, not static by change the security system by a certain period maybe 6 months to 3 years depends on the terrorist risk environment. The common technology on airport security being used is the explosive detection machines. Example, X-ray machines, puffer machines, and backscatter X-ray. X-ray machine scan through body to detect any prohibition material inside the body. Puffer machine is the secondary scanner on the airport, its function is to scan small material, the wire, metal, and explosive material.
The backscatter X-ray can fully scan the surface of the body which scanned image resulted of the body of the particular persons. It uses to detect the prohibited material undercover by the clothes. There are some issues on the backscatter X-ray scanner as certain people does not like their body to be scan off image that violate their privacy and rights. Other than that, people are concern with the accountability of the scan machine whether it will incur side effects or any health unconscious damage by the radiation. Normally, the scan machine does have radiation that affects human body.
However, the affect does little or minimal destroy some cells of the body that would not affect the health. Unless the frequency of scan time within a short period is increase will surely damage the human cell body. People are screened through airport security from exit gates to the aircraft are located (secure area). Non passengers are allowed at secure area. Some prohibition material are not allow to bring like sharp tools (knife, scissor), liquid (perfume, mineral water, alcohol, and weapon (pistol, bullet, radioactive). Another airport security system is using the risk-based factor, which is three-tier passenger approach.
This approach differentiates the passengers into three categories: low risk, high risk, and ordinary passenger. The low risk category emphasizes the security clearance or having a background check to detect any pass criminal history record on the passenger. This group of passengers stated as register travelers. The high risk category is on either those identified as risk by intelligence or about whom very little information exists. This situation is depends of the level of risk in the particular country to identify the risk standard. The ordinary category of passenger means everyone else.
In previous 9/11 incident, the register travelers are required to screen in the fast lane with no shoe, no laptop or jacket removal condition. The ordinary travelers just take current screening process and the high risk travelers are mandatory to have secondary screening for those on watch list (body scan and explosives screening of carry-on. 2. Maritime Security In maritime security, the security is not as high as the airport security against terrorism. All of container ship must inform the items inside the container that would be carry-on. While at the ship port, the container must scan by customs clearance.
Envois must be same with BOL, custom clearance and picture after scanned. The objective of maritime security is to be a safety and security at port in domestic and other countries. The dangerous goods such as flammable or explosiveness goods are not allowed to enter in some countries unless it has permitted and have specialist to handle the goods. The security system more emphasizes in sea transportation after 9/11 incident is the container management. It is because the container is highly ranked as a target to carry threats by terrorist from one place to other place.
One of the container management systems is Container Disbursement on Unit Cost Tracing on Record, CONDUCTOR. According to Shigehiko Noda (2004) “The CONDUCTOR facilitates the capture and compilation of transaction details of each container, wherever it goes and whoever handles it. The system may, if developed and implemented to its ideal capacity, provide information on the involvement of various parties, organizations, or individuals in the transport process. It can also provide the exact profile of each party that handles a box in the process from origin to destination.
It may show relevant data in advance with more visibility to the malicious intentions of those who might try to use a container as a weapon of mass destruction. ” The CONDUCTOR also supports the government authorities such as Container Security Initiative, CSI to handle the container security. It may not committed in detect danger; however, it gives a barrier to terrorist to take advantage on the container carrier transport through the high visibility system. The CONDUCTOR primarily use for data recording application with each single container number for identification which is under the same vessel in the conventional shipping (e. . of a break-bulk ship). The concept “one container or millions” in CONDUCTOR means the volume of the container handled is no longer present as problem in terms of controlling, managing, and operating. It uses real time online on each of the container to oversee the transaction during a particular trip. However, there is one challenge by using this technology. As the ship travel across the world, the information technology on certain region may have different standards that match with this system. Some countries may have less developed infrastructure to support this system in port.
Through the rapid technology change, the CONDUCTOR system may use satellite GPS system or internet to manage the container across borders. It may become less confidential in terms of data and transaction since there are no private company technology platform been use. The terrorist may attempt to hack or sabotage the internet and satellite system. 3. Land Security Land security is the hardest to manage because of too many public gather places and hard to foreseen terrorist actions when the place is crowded. Generally, the public land security focus at bus terminals, railway stations, and taxi park.
Those areas are having many people as easy to be the terrorist target. The technology to prevent or detect any terrorist activities is closed-circuit television (CCTV), X-ray Scanner at rail station. Other than that, the patrolled cars from police at high risk area and also the security guard being hired at some areas. Some police forces bring well trained dogs to detect the terrorist activities. Dogs are good to detect suspicious smell from explosive material or bio chemical weapon. III. General Information Suspicious packages and letters are highly exposed to the transportation company who deliver customer packages and letters.
The transportation company must able to detect the suspicious packages and letters that may come from terrorist to use the company for carry its threat to the particular target. The letter and package bomb indicators are unexpected from someone unfamiliar, no return address on it, marked with “personal” or “confidential”, strange odors or stains, protruding wires or aluminum foil, unusual weight, lopsided or oddly shaped, inappropriate or unusual Labeling, restrictive marking, rigid or bulky, wrong title name, misspell words and adly typed or written. The transportation company must follow the proper mail screening procedures, report to police if there are any suspicious packages or strange devices or unusual behavior from the sender and also understand how to follow bio-hazard procedures for handling the suspicious items. It is hard to detect and prevent various terrorist attacks in transportation sector even with the high technologies system or high technologies devices.
However, besides the necessary for the company to provide sufficient security system, the other important role is how the transportation company reacts when the terrorist attacks really occur in airport, seaport, railway station, or bus terminals. For example, when there is an explosion occurred in airport, the authority or security agents should evacuate the people from the target area or building. If there is fire, stay low, exit quickly, cover nose and mouth.
If trapped tap on a pipe, or use a whistle if available to catch attention from the crowded. Due to the Tokyo Sarin Attack tragedy, which was a bio chemical attacked in the rail, many people had died in very shorten time inside the train. Many people do not know when biochemical attacks occur as they did not realize. There are symptoms of exposure to biochemical: blurred vision, eye irritation, difficulty breathing, and nausea.
Whenever the transport officers discover these symptoms, first thing to do is evacuate the passenger. Then the officers must immediately pursue decontamination strategy, which have to remove all clothing and put it in plastic bag, wash with soap and water, remove contact lenses, flush eyes with lots of water, wash face and hair, change into uncontaminated clothes, proceed to a medical facility. International Organization and Agencies Involved In Combating Terrorism
I. International Organization There are have many organization or agencies involved in terrorism of transport. The overall objective of organizations are exist the condition secure, safety and protective our country from terrorism activities especially used by transport as a medium. There are having different organizations with different function and approaches but have same vision among members. International of Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), is a United Nation (UN) Specialized Agency. ICAO vision’s of safe, secure and sustainable development of civil aviation through cooperation amongst its member states. ICAO has six strategic objectives to implement their vision. The Organization has established the following Strategic Objectives for the period 2005-2010: a) Safety – Enhance global civil aviation safety b) Security – Enhance global civil aviation security ) Environmental Protection – Minimize the adverse effect of global civil aviation on the environment d) Efficiency – Enhance the efficiency of aviation operations e) Continuity – Maintain the continuity of aviation operations f) Rule of Law – Strengthen law governing international civil aviation ICAO is very street about safety and security of civil aviation. That why the strategic objective of safety and security are located in the top. In the case, terrorism and transport are related and the terrorism groups always that used.
ICAO as a specialized agency is tried to protect their properties such as enhance global civil aviation safety and security. ( http://www. icao. int/icao/en/strategic_objectives. htm ). The solution about safety, ICAO introduced of the Flight Safety Section (FLS). FLS is responsible for the development of standards, recommended practices, procedures and guidance material related to the operation, certification and airworthiness of aircraft including instrument procedures design, the licensing and training of personnel and the safe transport of dangerous goods by air.
In addition, the FLS is responsible for the Flight Safety and Human Factors
