Thailand, formerly Siam, officially Kingdom of Thailand, kingdom in Southeast
Asia, bounded by Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) on the north and west, by
Laos on the northeast, by Cambodia and the Gulf of Thailand (Siam) on the
southeast, by Malaysia on the south, and by the Andaman Sea and Myanmar on the
southwest. The total area of Thailand is 513,115 sq km (198,115 sq mi). Bangkok
is the capital and largest city. IILAND AND RESOURCES Thailand lies within the
Indochinese Peninsula (see Indochina), except for the southern extremity, which
occupies a portion of the Malay Peninsula. The country’s extreme dimensions are
about 1770 km (about 1100 mi) from north to south and about 800 km (about 500
mi) from east to west. The physiography is highly diversified, but the mountain
systems are the predominant feature of the terrain. A series of parallel ranges,
with a north-south trend, occupy the northern and western portions of the
country. Extreme elevations occur in the westernmost ranges, which extend along
the Myanmar frontier and rise to 2595 m (8514 ft) atop Doi Inthanon, the highest
point in Thailand. The peninsular area, which is bordered by narrow coastal
plains, reaches a high point of 1790 m (5860 ft) atop Khao Luang. Another
mountain system projects, in a northern and southern direction, through central
Thailand. At its southern extremity, the system assumes an east-west trend and
extends to the eastern frontier. Doi Pia Fai (1270 m/4167 ft) is its highest
peak. The region to the north and east of this system consists largely of a low,
barren plateau, called the Khorat Plateau. Making up about one-third of the
country, the plateau is bordered by the Mekong River valley. Between the central
and western mountains is a vast alluvial plain traversed by the Chao Phraya, the
chief river of Thailand. This central plain, together with the fertile delta
formed by the Chao Phraya near Bangkok, is the richest agricultural and most
densely populated section of the kingdom. AClimate Thailand has a moist,
tropical climate, influenced chiefly by monsoon winds that vary in direction
according to the season. From April to October the winds are mainly from the
southwest and are moisture laden; during the rest of the year they blow from the
northeast. Temperatures are higher, ranging from about 26? to 37? C (about 78?
to 98? F), while the country is under the influence of the southwestern winds.
During the remainder of the year the range is from about 13? to 33? C (about
56? to 92? F). Temperatures are somewhat higher inland than they are along the
coast, except at points of great elevation. Annual rainfall is about 1520 mm
(about 60 in) in the northern, western, and central regions, about 2540 mm
(about 100 in) or more on the Thai portion of the Malay Peninsula, and about
1270 mm (about 50 in) or less on the Khorat Plateau. Most rain falls in summer
(June through October). BNatural Resources. Thailand is rich in natural
resources. Among the known mineral deposits are coal, gold, lead, tin, tungsten,
manganese, zinc, and precious stones. The rich alluvial soil along the Chao
Phraya and other rivers constitutes another important resource. Natural gas
deposits were discovered offshore in the 1970s, reducing Thailand’s reliance on
imported petroleum. CPlants and Animals Jungles and swamps, scattered through
the coastal areas of Thailand, have extensive tracts of tropical trees,
including mangrove, rattan, ironwood, sappanwood, ebony, and rosewood. The
upland areas are also heavily wooded, the most valuable species being teak,
agalloch, and oak. In addition, a wide variety of tropical plants and fruit
trees, including orchid, gardenia, hibiscus, banana, mango, and coconut, occur
in Thailand. Many species of animal inhabit the jungles and forests. Elephants,
widely used as beasts of burden, are abundant. Other large animals include the
rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, gaur, water buffalo, and gibbon. The Siamese cat is,
as its name implies, indigenous to Thailand. Thailand has more than 50 species
of snakes, including several poisonous varieties. Crocodiles are numerous, as
are various species of fishes and birds. IIIPOPULATION About 75 percent of the
inhabitants of Thailand are Thai. The largest minority group consists of the
Chinese, who make up about 14 percent of the total population, and most are Thai
nationals. Other minority groups include the Malay-speaking Muslims in the
south, the hill tribes in the north, and Cambodian (Khmer) and Vietnamese
refugees in the east. The population of Thailand is 80 percent rural.
APopulation Characteristics The population of Thailand is about 59,450,818 (1997
estimate), yielding an overall population density of 116 persons per sq km (300
per sq mi). The population is unevenly distributed, however, with the greatest
concentration of people in the central region. BPolitical Divisions Thailand is
divided into 76 provinces ( changwats). The provinces are further subdivided
into districts (amphurs), subdistricts (king amphurs), communes (tambons),
villages ( moobans), municipalities (tesabans), and sanitation districts (sukhaphibans).
CPrincipal Cities Bangkok is the capital, chief seaport, and largest city
(population, 1992 estimate, Bangkok Metropolis, 5,562,141). Other important
towns include Chiang Mai (170,269), the largest in northern Thailand; Songkhla
(80,881), on the Malay Peninsula; and Nakhon Si Thammarat (79,447), also on the
Malay Peninsula. DReligion Buddhism is the prevailing religion of Thailand.
About 95 percent of all Thai are Buddhist, and the country has approximately
18,000 Buddhist temples and 140,000 Buddhist priests. Nearly all Buddhist men in
Thailand enter a wat (monastery) for at least a few days or months. Muslims, the
majority of whom live in the area just north of Malaysia, constitute
approximately 4 percent of the population, and the country also has some small
Christian and Hindu communities. ELanguage Thai, a member of the Tai language
family, is the chief language. Four regional dialects are in use. Lao, Chinese,
Malay, and Mon-Khmer are also spoken in Thailand. English is taught in secondary
schools and colleges and is also used in commerce and government. FEducation
Education in Thailand is free and compulsory for all children between the ages
of 6 and 12, and 87 percent of the children are enrolled in either public
primary schools or those operated by Buddhist monasteries. Only 55 percent of
all eligible children attend secondary schools. Children are officially required
to receive six years of education, and the government has announced its
intention to increase that number to nine years. The literacy rate is 94
percent, higher than that of most other countries of Southeast Asia.
F1Elementary and Secondary Schools In the 1995-1996 school year 6.0 million
students received primary education. Some 3.8 million students attended either
lower- or upper-level secondary schools. F2Universities and Colleges In the
early 1990s there were more than 600,000 students enrolled in institutions of
higher education in Thailand, including more than 300,000 students enrolled at
two open universities. Thailand has 17 universities, the largest of which
include Chulalongkorn University (1917) in Bangkok and Chiang Mai University
(1964) in the north. In addition, the Asian Institute of Technology (1959), in
Bangkok, offers graduate degrees. In the early 1990s about 38,500 students
attended 36 teacher-training colleges, which also offer four-year degree
programs. GCulture Thailand is unique in Southeast Asia in that the country has
never been a dependency of another nation. Another notable difference is that
Thai women, unlike women of some other East Asian countries, are active in
business affairs, the professions, and the arts. No single culture has ever
dominated the entire area. The first time a national identity is thought to have
been developed was during the Sukhothai kingdom. Formed in the first half of the
13th century when several Thai municipalities united, the kingdom survived until
the late 14th to early 15th century, when it was absorbed by the Ayutthaya
kings. During its short existence, however, the Sukhothai kingdom established a
new Thai alphabet, which became the basis for modern Thai, and codified the Thai
form of Theravada Buddhism. HLibraries and Museums The largest library in
Thailand is the National Library in Bangkok. In addition, important technical
collections are maintained in Bangkok at the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, the Asian Institute of Technology Library,
and the Thai National Documentation Center. Thailand has a National Museum in
Bangkok, which houses a large collection of ancient artifacts illustrating the
development of Thai culture. Another important collection of Thai art was
assembled by Jim Thompson, an American businessman who lived in Bangkok from the
late 1940s to the 1960s. His reconstructed Thai house, filled with art,
furniture, and ceramics, is now a museum. ILiterature Classic Thai literature is
based on tradition and history. The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Hindu epic
Ramayana, is the leading classic on which Thai art and music are based. The main
theme remains the same in the Thai version, although the Ramakien is about 25
percent longer than the original Hindu version. Modern writing is more Western
in style. Thailand has many women among its authors of popular writing. Kukrit
Pramoj is one of Thailand’s most famous novelists. In addition to his career as
a writer, he was Thailand’s prime minister in 1975. JArt Among the most
celebrated works of architecture in Thailand are the wats in Bangkok. Thai
sculpture, dating from the 14th century, is a mixture of Chinese, Myanmar,
Hindu, and Khmer influences and is best seen in the temples and representations
of Buddha. Thai religious paintings have been less well preserved; paintings are
rarely older than 150 years. Thailand is known for producing beautiful silk
textiles. KMusic and Dance Thai music is very intricate and is a usual
accompaniment of Thai drama. The instruments, primarily woodwind and percussion,
are usually grouped in five- or ten-piece ensembles. Musicians sit on the floor
to play, and generally play by ear. The dance in Thailand is equally intricate,
following or deriving from Indian dancing and involving a series of gestures and
swaying that interpret a story. Even the smallest movements reflect important
story threads, carefully woven by performers dressed in elaborate costumes and
headgear. IVECONOMY The cultivation, processing, and export of agricultural
products, especially rice, was traditionally the mainstay of the Thai economy.
Although Thailand has long been among the most prosperous of the Asian nations,
its dependence on a single crop rendered it exceedingly vulnerable to
fluctuations in the world price of rice and to variations in the harvest. The
government has diminished this vulnerability by instituting a number of
development programs aimed at diversifying the economy and by promoting
scientific methods of farming, particularly controlled flooding of the rice
fields, so that the rice harvest might remain stable even in years of scant
rainfall. Spurred largely by Japanese investment, Thailand industrialized
rapidly during the 1980s and early 1990s; however, the economy experienced a
downturn in the mid-1990s that worried both investors and the Thai people. The
estimated national budget in 1995 included revenue of $31.3 billion and
expenditure of $26.6 billion. In 1997 Thailand suffered an economic crisis when
it became clear that a number of the country’s financial institutions were near
bankruptcy. Many had acquired bad debts during the economic boom years of the
1980s and early 1990s. Investors lost confidence in the value of the baht (the
Thai currency), which began to fall sharply against the United States dollar. As
the crisis developed, many businesses failed, unemployment rose, and the
currencies and stock markets of other Southeast Asian nations were affected. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) provided an aid package of loans to help
Thailand weather the crisis. To obtain the loans, Thailand agreed to take steps
to stabilize its economy, including making budget cuts, raising taxes, and
closing unstable financial institutions. AAgriculture Thailand is one of the
world’s leading producers of rice, despite the fact that the yield per hectare
is low. In 1997 Thailand produced 21.8 million metric tons of rice, up from
about 11.3 million metric tons per year in the 1960s. The second most important
crop in value is rubber, which is raised mainly on plantations on the Malay
Peninsula. Thailand produced 2.3 million metric tons of natural rubber in 1997.
Other important crops included cassava (17.2 million metric tons), sugarcane
(60.0 million), maize (4.4 million), and fruits such as pineapples and coconuts
(6.9 million). Thailand is also a significant producer of kenaf, a fiber used in
making canvas. Livestock totaled 8.0 million cattle, 4.8 million buffalo, 4.0
million pigs, and 131 million poultry. BForestry and Fishing Forests cover 23
percent of Thailand’s total land area. The most valuable forest product is
hardwood. The timber harvest in 1995 totaled 39.3 million cu m (1.4 billion cu
ft), nearly all of which was burned for fuel. Thailand was a major exporter of
teak until a ban on uncontrolled logging was instituted in 1989, following
severe flooding as a result of deforestation. Fishing is rapidly growing in
importance to the Thai economy. In 1995 the annual catch included 3.3 million
metric tons of prawns, fish, and shellfish. In the early 1990s exports of ocean
products, particularly prawns, accounted for about 10 percent of export
earnings. CMining The development of extensive natural gas reserves has
decreased Thailand’s dependence on energy imports. Production in 1996 was 13.2
billion cu m (468 billion cu ft), 5 percent of the proven reserves. Gemstones,
particularly diamonds, are the principal mineral export of Thailand, producing
3.3 percent of export revenues. The country’s chief mineral products included
(with annual output in the early 1990s) lignite (14.5 million metric tons), zinc
ore (496,000), lead concentrates (65,500), tin (14,200), gypsum (7.2 million)
and iron ore (240,100). DManufacturing Thailand’s increasingly diversified
manufacturing sector is a central component of the nation’s economic expansion,
growing by 9.4 percent annually during the 1980s and early 1990s. Industry,
which includes manufacturing, construction, and mining, employs 14 percent of
the labor force. Food-processing industries, especially rice milling and sugar
refining; textile and clothing manufacture; and the electronics industry
predominate. Other important manufactured goods included cement (18 million
metric tons), motor vehicles (318,000 units), cigarettes (38.3 billion units),
and various chemicals and petroleum products. EEnergy In 1996 Thailand produced
82 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity, up from about 3 billion kilowatt-hours
in 1968. Generating plants fueled by hydrocarbons produced 91 of the
electricity. FCurrency and Banking The basic unit of currency of Thailand is the
baht, which is divided into 100 satang. In 1996 25.34 baht equaled U.S.$1.
After the onset of the 1997 economic crisis, the baht fell against the dollar by
as much as 25 percent before making a partial recovery in the first quarter of
1998. The Bank of Thailand, established in 1942, issues all currency. Thailand
also has many commercial bank branches, as well as several foreign banks.
GForeign Trade and Tourism In 1995 Thai exports were valued at $56.4 billion,
and imports were valued at $73.7 billion. Principal exports were agricultural
products, electronics, clothing and footwear, and rubber. Thailand’s primary
trading partners were Japan, the United States, Singapore, Germany, Hong Kong,
and South Korea. Tourism is Thailand’s chief source of foreign capital.
HTransportation The Thai railroad system, which totals 3870 km (2405 mi) of
track, is owned and operated by the state. Consisting of a network of lines
radiating from Bangkok, the system extends as far north as Chiang Mai, southward
to the frontier of Malaysia, eastward to Ubon Ratchathani, and northeastward
through Udon Thani to Nong Khai near the Laos border. Another line extends
northwestward to the Myanmar frontier. The Chao Phraya, navigable for about 80
km (about 50 mi) from its mouth, is an important inland waterway. The highway
system was improved in the 1970s and now includes 64,600 km (40,100 mi) of
roads. Thai Airways operates both domestic and international services. Don Muang
International Airport in northern metropolitan Bangkok is the largest airport.
In addition, there are more than 20 smaller airports located throughout the
country. Thailand is also planning a second international airport for the
Bangkok area; it is expected to be completed around 2000. The port of Bangkok,
one of the most modern in Southeast Asia, also serves neighboring landlocked
Laos. ICommunications In 1995 Thailand had 189 radio receivers and 189
television sets for every 1000 residents. Bangkok has 19 daily newspapers,
including 2 in English and 5 in Chinese, which have a combined circulation of
more than 2.9 million. Periodicals are published in Thai, English, and Chinese,
and several weekly papers serve the provinces. A press censorship law was
repealed in Thailand in 1991. JLabor In 1996 the labor force totaled 34.7
million. Agriculture engaged 64 percent of the workers. Organized labor is
represented by more than 530 unions with a combined total of nearly 300,000
members. VGOVERNMENT A revolution in 1932 transformed Thailand into a
constitutional monarchy after centuries of rule by absolute monarchs, but until
recently the country was largely controlled by the military. Although King
Phumiphon Adunyadet has little direct power, he exercises considerable influence
on political leaders. The nation’s 16th constitution took effect in 1997. It is
the first of Thailand’s constitutions to be drafted by a process involving
public debate, and the first to include a bill of rights guaranteeing equality
to all citizens. AExecutive Under the constitution the king is Thailand’s head
of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. A cabinet is headed by a
prime minister, who is the country’s chief executive official. BLegislature
Legislative power in Thailand is vested in the bicameral National Assembly,
which consists of a 500-member House of Representatives and a 245-member Senate.
Representatives are directly elected to four-year terms. Prior to the 1997
constitution, senators were appointed by the military; however, under the new
constitution they too will be directly elected to four-year terms. CJudiciary
Thai citizens are guaranteed due process and equal justice under the law. The
highest court is the Sarn Dika (Supreme Court), sitting in Bangkok, which is the
court of final appeal in all civil, criminal, and bankruptcy cases. A single
court of appeals (Sarn Uthorn) has appellate jurisdiction in all cases. Courts
of first instance include magistrates’ courts with limited civil and criminal
jurisdiction, provincial courts with unlimited jurisdiction, and civil and
criminal courts with exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok proper and Thon Buri.
Thailand’s constitution recognizes the independence of the judiciary. DLocal
Government Each of Thailand’s 76 provinces, called changwats, are under the
control of a governor appointed by the Ministry of Interior, except Bangkok
Metropolis, where the governor is elected by popular vote. District (amphur)
officials are also appointed. Larger towns are governed by elected and appointed
officials, and elected heads hold power at local levels. EHealth and Welfare The
Ministry of Public Health is charged with disaster relief, child welfare,
protection of the disabled and destitute, and development programs for northern
hill tribes. Special programs were initiated in the 1980s to assist refugees
from Vietnam and Cambodia in the east. The spread of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), is a
serious public health problem in Thailand. According to the Thai Ministry of
Public Health, the number of estimated HIV-infected people in Thailand was about
600,000 in 1994. Thailand’s anti-AIDS campaign, launched in 1991, was among the
first in Southeast Asia. The campaign includes AIDS awareness programs,
encouraging Thai to avoid brothels and use condoms. Clinics offer anonymous
testing for HIV infection. Thailand has one physician for every 4288 residents
and one hospital bed for every 586 people. FDefense Military service is
compulsory for two years for all able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 30.
In 1997 the armed forces included an army of 150,000 members, an air force of
43,000, and a navy of 73,000. VIHISTORY Present-day Thai are believed to be the
descendants of Tai-speaking people who lived in the Black River (S?ng D?)
valley of northern Vietnam, the extreme northeastern section of Laos, and
neighboring sections of China around the 5th to 8th century AD. These Tai people
may have spread into Thailand between the 7th to 13th century. By the end of the
13th century the Tai had formed a political entity and emerged as a nation
afterward known as the Thai. In 1350 a unified Thai kingdom was established by a
ruler known posthumously as Rama Tibodi. He founded the kingdom of Ayutthaya and
made the city of Ayutthaya his capital. Despite intermittent warfare with the
Cambodians and the Burmans, the Ayutthaya kingdom flourished during the next
four centuries, conquering Cambodia and the surviving states in the north.
Meanwhile, the Thai had come into contact that was not always friendly with
various European and Asian nations, including Portugal, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom, and China. ASovereignty Embattled In 1767, following a two-year
siege, Myanmar troops captured and destroyed Ayutthaya. The rule of Myanmar
overlords in Thailand was shortly terminated when General Pya Taksin proclaimed
himself king. When Taksin was executed by his ministers, the crown passed to
General Pya Chakri, founder of the present dynasty of Thai kings, who ruled from
1782 to 1809 as Rama I. The British and Thai governments concluded a commercial
treaty in 1826. Because of the rights and privileges obtained by this agreement,
British influence increased in Thailand throughout the remainder of the 19th
century. Owing to the statesmanship of two rulers, however, Thailand was spared
the fate of colonization that befell its neighbors. Interested in Western
science and civilization, King Mongkut (Rama IV), who reigned from 1851 to 1868,
invited many European advisers to assist him in modernizing the country. His
son, King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who reigned during the height of the onslaught
of European colonization, continued the vigorous modernization efforts of his
father and managed to maintain the country’s independence, albeit at
considerable cost in territorial concessions. For example, in 1893 Thailand
became embroiled in a boundary dispute with France, then the dominant power in
Cochin China, Annam, Tonkin, and Cambodia. The French dispatched warships to
Bangkok and forced the Thai to yield Cambodia and all of Laos east of the Mekong
River. Additional Thai territory, situated west of the Mekong, was acquired by
France in 1904 and 1907. Thailand gave up control over four states in the Malay
Peninsula to the United Kingdom in 1909. In exchange, the British relinquished
most of their extraterritorial rights in the rest of the kingdom. The Thai
government entered World War I (1914-1918) on the side of the Allies in July
1917. Thailand subsequently became a founding member of the League of Nations.
In June 1932, during the reign of King Prajadhipok, a small group of Thai
military and political leaders organized a successful revolt against the
government, until then an absolute monarchy. The insurgents, led by Pridi
Phanomyong and Colonel Phibun Songgram, proclaimed a constitutional monarchy on
June 27. Royalist opposition was finally overcome in October 1933. King
Prajadhipok, increasingly unhappy with the new government and in ill health,
abdicated in March 1935 in favor of his nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol. Thailand
invalidated all of its treaties with foreign nations in November 1936. Under the
provisions of new treaties negotiated in the following year, the government
obtained complete autonomy over its internal and external affairs. BWorld War II
With Japanese encouragement and support, Phibun’s government made demands on
France, beginning in 1940, for the return of the territory ceded in and after
1893. The dispute was settled, with Japanese mediation, in May 1941. By the
terms of the settlement, Thailand received about 54,000 sq km (about 21,000 sq
mi) of territory, including part of western Cambodia and all of Laos west of the
Mekong River. The relations between Japan and Thailand became increasingly
friendly thereafter. On December 8, 1941, a few hours after the Japanese attack
on Pearl Harbor, the Thai government granted Japan the right to move troops
across the country to the Malayan frontier. Thailand declared war on the United
States and the United Kingdom on January 25, 1942. Phibun’s pro-Japanese
government, however, was overthrown in July 1944; Pridi took over, and under his
leadership considerable sympathy for the Allied cause developed among the Thai
people. Thailand concluded a treaty with the United Kingdom and India in January
1946, renouncing, among other things, its claims to Malayan territory obtained
during the war. Diplomatic relations with the United States were resumed in the
same month. In November 1946 Thailand reached an agreement with France providing
for the return to France of the territory obtained in 1941. Thailand was
admitted to the United Nations (UN) on December 15, 1946, becoming the 55th
member. Meanwhile, on June 9, 1946, King Ananda Mahidol had died under
mysterious circumstances. A regency was appointed to rule during the minority of
his brother and successor, King Rama IX. CDomestic Instability On November 9,
1947, a military junta led by Phibun seized control of the government. Except
for a brief interlude early in 1948, Phibun thereafter retained control of the
government until 1957. His regime, essentially a dictatorship, based its foreign
policy on maintaining close relations with the United States and the United
Kingdom. King Rama IX assumed the throne on May 5, 1950. After the outbreak of
the Korean War in June 1950, Thailand assigned approximately 4000 men to the UN
forces. On November 29, 1951, a group of army officers seized control of the
government in a bloodless coup d’?tat and reestablished the authoritarian
constitution of 1932, with some changes. Phibun was retained as premier.
Meanwhile, a Free Thai movement, supported by the Chinese Communists and
nominally headed by Pridi, had been formed in China. Thai representatives took
part in the Geneva Conference of April 1954, which temporarily ended the war in
Indochina. In September 1954, Thailand was a founding member and Bangkok became
the headquarters of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). In September
1957, Phibun’s government was overthrown by a military coup d’?tat led by
Marshall Sarit Thanarat, commander in chief of the Thai armed forces. A
coalition government was formed in January 1958 under the premiership of
Lieutenant General Thanom Kittikachorn. Another coup in October 1958, again
headed by Sarit, overthrew the Thanom government. The constitution was
suspended, a state of martial law was proclaimed, and all political parties were
banned. In the early 1960s the government showed increasing concern over a
rapidly growing Communist guerrilla movement in the north. The increase in
terrorist attacks was one of the major problems faced by Thanom, who became
prime minister again on Sarit’s death in December 1963. The new government was
also concerned about the deteriorating position of the pro-Western government in
neighboring Laos and about the Vietnam War (1959-1975). DStruggle for Democracy
On the political front, the government took gradual steps toward the restoration
of political rights suspended in 1958. Elections to municipal councils were held
for the first time in a decade in December 1967. A permanent constitution was
promulgated in June 1968. Parliamentary elections were held in February 1969, in
which the United Thai People’s Party won a plurality of 75 seats in the house of
representatives. The largest opposition group, the Democratic Party, won 56
seats. Beginning about 1969, the United States changed its role in Southeast
Asia by gradually withdrawing its forces from Vietnam and by seeking friendly
relations with China. These developments caused Thailand to establish a more
flexible foreign policy, especially toward China and North Vietnam. At the same
time, Thailand continued to face guerrilla activities in the north and along the
border with Malaysia. The U.S. withdrawal from Southeast Asia had an adverse
effect on the Thai economy. The declining economy and guerrilla activities were
given as reasons for the establishment of a military government in November
1971. The military, led by General Thanom, abolished the constitution and
dissolved parliament. In December 1972 a new constitution was proclaimed. In
1973 a series of student-led demonstrations against the military government
resulted in Thanom’s resignation in October and the appointment of a civilian
cabinet. In late 1974 a new constitution was approved, and a freely elected
government was formed in early 1975. Stability, however, remained elusive, and
new elections in April 1976 made little difference. In September of that year
the return of former Prime Minister Thanom from exile in Singapore led to bloody
battles in Bangkok between leftist students and his right-wing supporters. In
early October, as disorder was spreading, a military group led by Admiral Sa-ngad
Chaloryu seized control of the country and installed a conservative government.
A year later, however, that government also was brought down by Sa-ngad and his
group. Sa-ngad instructed a new cabinet to try to bridge the divisions of Thai
society and improve relations with the neighboring Communist regimes. Yet
another constitution was promulgated in December 1978, and in April 1979
elections were held for a new House of Representatives. The military-installed
government, however, remained in power until March 1980, when it was replaced by
a new cabinet, headed by General Prem Tinsulanonda. Elections in 1983 left
General Prem as head of a new coalition government. He dissolved the National
Assembly in 1986 and called new elections. His party won, without a majority,
and he again formed a coalition government. After elections in July 1988,
Chatichai Choonhavan became prime minister. A military junta ousted him in
February 1991 and installed an interim civilian government. After pro-military
parties won the elections of March 1992, demonstrations in Bangkok calling for
democratic reforms were violently suppressed. New elections in September
resulted in another coalition government, with a veteran politician, Chuan
Leekpai, as prime minister. In February 1995 the government passed a sweeping
package that amended almost all the articles of the 1991 constitution. The
prodemocracy changes included lowering the voting age from 20 to 18 years and
changing the number of representatives from a fixed number to one based on
population. In addition, Thai citizens were guaranteed due process and equal
justice under the law. In May 1995 the Chuan Leekpai government collapsed amid
accusations of wrongdoing in a government land reform project. In July 1995,
after new elections, the leader of Chart Thai (Thai Nation Party), Banharn
Silpa-archa, became prime minister. Less than a year into Silpa-archa’s
government, accusations emerged of corruption among his appointees, prompting
investigation into bribes, abuse of authority, and questionable bank loans. In
1996, after a no confidence debate in parliament, Silpa-archa resigned as prime
minister. New elections secured a slim victory for the New Aspiration Party
(NAP); its leader Chavalit Yongchaiyudh became the next Thai prime minister. In
1997 Thailand’s economy experienced a significant setback as the baht fell
sharply against the dollar, many financial institutions and other businesses
failed, and unemployment rose. The crisis then spread, affecting the economies
of other Southeast Asian nations. To prevent the crisis from spreading further,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) agreed to provide an aid package of loans
to Thailand. In return, Thailand agreed to adopt a series of measures intended
to stabilize its economy. In October 1997 Thailand adopted a new constitution,
with provisions aimed at controlling political corruption and expanding civil
liberties. Facing criticism for his handling of the economy, Yongchaiyudh
resigned as prime minister in November, and Chuan Leekpai was appointed to the
post a second time. IINTRODUCTION Thailand, formerly Siam, officially Kingdom of
Thailand, kingdom in Southeast Asia, bounded by Myanmar (formerly known as
Burma) on the north and west, by Laos on the northeast, by Cambodia and the Gulf
of Thailand (Siam) on the southeast, by Malaysia on the south, and by the
Andaman Sea and Myanmar on the southwest. The total area of Thailand is 513,115
sq km (198,115 sq mi). Bangkok is the capital and largest city. IILAND AND
RESOURCES Thailand lies within the Indochinese Peninsula (see Indochina), except
for the southern extremity, which occupies a portion of the Malay Peninsula. The
country’s extreme dimensions are about 1770 km (about 1100 mi) from north to
south and about 800 km (about 500 mi) from east to west. The physiography is
highly diversified, but the mountain systems are the predominant feature of the
terrain. A series of parallel ranges, with a north-south trend, occupy the
northern and western portions of the country. Extreme elevations occur in the
westernmost ranges, which extend along the Myanmar frontier and rise to 2595 m
(8514 ft) atop Doi Inthanon, the highest point in Thailand. The peninsular area,
which is bordered by narrow coastal plains, reaches a high point of 1790 m (5860
ft) atop Khao Luang. Another mountain system projects, in a northern and
southern direction, through central Thailand. At its southern extremity, the
system assumes an east-west trend and extends to the eastern frontier. Doi Pia
Fai (1270 m/4167 ft) is its highest peak. The region to the north and east of
this system consists largely of a low, barren plateau, called the Khorat
Plateau. Making up about one-third of the country, the plateau is bordered by
the Mekong River valley. Between the central and western mountains is a vast
alluvial plain traversed by the Chao Phraya, the chief river of Thailand. This
central plain, together with the fertile delta formed by the Chao Phraya near
Bangkok, is the richest agricultural and most densely populated section of the
kingdom. AClimate Thailand has a moist, tropical climate, influenced chiefly by
monsoon winds that vary in direction according to the season. From April to
October the winds are mainly from the southwest and are moisture laden; during
the rest of the year they blow from the northeast. Temperatures are higher,
ranging from about 26? to 37? C (about 78? to 98? F), while the country is
under the influence of the southwestern winds. During the remainder of the year
the range is from about 13? to 33? C (about 56? to 92? F). Temperatures are
somewhat higher inland than they are along the coast, except at points of great
elevation. Annual rainfall is about 1520 mm (about 60 in) in the northern,
western, and central regions, about 2540 mm (about 100 in) or more on the Thai
portion of the Malay Peninsula, and about 1270 mm (about 50 in) or less on the
Khorat Plateau. Most rain falls in summer (June through October). BNatural
Resources. Thailand is rich in natural resources. Among the known mineral
deposits are coal, gold, lead, tin, tungsten, manganese, zinc, and precious
stones. The rich alluvial soil along the Chao Phraya and other rivers
constitutes another important resource. Natural gas deposits were discovered
offshore in the 1970s, reducing Thailand’s reliance on imported petroleum.
CPlants and Animals Jungles and swamps, scattered through the coastal areas of
Thailand, have extensive tracts of tropical trees, including mangrove, rattan,
ironwood, sappanwood, ebony, and rosewood. The upland areas are also heavily
wooded, the most valuable species being teak, agalloch, and oak. In addition, a
wide variety of tropical plants and fruit trees, including orchid, gardenia,
hibiscus, banana, mango, and coconut, occur in Thailand. Many species of animal
inhabit the jungles and forests. Elephants, widely used as beasts of burden, are
abundant. Other large animals include the rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, gaur,
water buffalo, and gibbon. The Siamese cat is, as its name implies, indigenous
to Thailand. Thailand has more than 50 species of snakes, including several
poisonous varieties. Crocodiles are numerous, as are various species of fishes
and birds. IIIPOPULATION About 75 percent of the inhabitants of Thailand are
Thai. The largest minority group consists of the Chinese, who make up about 14
percent of the total population, and most are Thai nationals. Other minority
groups include the Malay-speaking Muslims in the south, the hill tribes in the
north, and Cambodian (Khmer) and Vietnamese refugees in the east. The population
of Thailand is 80 percent rural. APopulation Characteristics The population of
Thailand is about 59,450,818 (1997 estimate), yielding an overall population
density of 116 persons per sq km (300 per sq mi). The population is unevenly
distributed, however, with the greatest concentration of people in the central
region. BPolitical Divisions Thailand is divided into 76 provinces ( changwats).
The provinces are further subdivided into districts (amphurs), subdistricts
(king amphurs), communes (tambons), villages ( moobans), municipalities (tesabans),
and sanitation districts (sukhaphibans). CPrincipal Cities Bangkok is the
capital, chief seaport, and largest city (population, 1992 estimate, Bangkok
Metropolis, 5,562,141). Other important towns include Chiang Mai (170,269), the
largest in northern Thailand; Songkhla (80,881), on the Malay Peninsula; and
Nakhon Si Thammarat (79,447), also on the Malay Peninsula. DReligion Buddhism is
the prevailing religion of Thailand. About 95 percent of all Thai are Buddhist,
and the country has approximately 18,000 Buddhist temples and 140,000 Buddhist
priests. Nearly all Buddhist men in Thailand enter a wat (monastery) for at
least a few days or months. Muslims, the majority of whom live in the area just
north of Malaysia, constitute approximately 4 percent of the population, and the
country also has some small Christian and Hindu communities. ELanguage Thai, a
member of the Tai language family, is the chief language. Four regional dialects
are in use. Lao, Chinese, Malay, and Mon-Khmer are also spoken in Thailand.
English is taught in secondary schools and colleges and is also used in commerce
and government. FEducation Education in Thailand is free and compulsory for all
children between the ages of 6 and 12, and 87 percent of the children are
enrolled in either public primary schools or those operated by Buddhist
monasteries. Only 55 percent of all eligible children attend secondary schools.
Children are officially required to receive six years of education, and the
government has announced its intention to increase that number to nine years.
The literacy rate is 94 percent, higher than that of most other countries of
Southeast Asia. F1Elementary and Secondary Schools In the 1995-1996 school year
6.0 million students received primary education. Some 3.8 million students
attended either lower- or upper-level secondary schools. F2Universities and
Colleges In the early 1990s there were more than 600,000 students enrolled in
institutions of higher education in Thailand, including more than 300,000
students enrolled at two open universities. Thailand has 17 universities, the
largest of which include Chulalongkorn University (1917) in Bangkok and Chiang
Mai University (1964) in the north. In addition, the Asian Institute of
Technology (1959), in Bangkok, offers graduate degrees. In the early 1990s about
38,500 students attended 36 teacher-training colleges, which also offer
four-year degree programs. GCulture Thailand is unique in Southeast Asia in that
the country has never been a dependency of another nation. Another notable
difference is that Thai women, unlike women of some other East Asian countries,
are active in business affairs, the professions, and the arts. No single culture
has ever dominated the entire area. The first time a national identity is
thought to have been developed was during the Sukhothai kingdom. Formed in the
first half of the 13th century when several Thai municipalities united, the
kingdom survived until the late 14th to early 15th century, when it was absorbed
by the Ayutthaya kings. During its short existence, however, the Sukhothai
kingdom established a new Thai alphabet, which became the basis for modern Thai,
and codified the Thai form of Theravada Buddhism. HLibraries and Museums The
largest library in Thailand is the National Library in Bangkok. In addition,
important technical collections are maintained in Bangkok at the United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, the Asian Institute of
Technology Library, and the Thai National Documentation Center. Thailand has a
National Museum in Bangkok, which houses a large collection of ancient artifacts
illustrating the development of Thai culture. Another important collection of
Thai art was assembled by Jim Thompson, an American businessman who lived in
Bangkok from the late 1940s to the 1960s. His reconstructed Thai house, filled
with art, furniture, and ceramics, is now a museum. ILiterature Classic Thai
literature is based on tradition and history. The Ramakien, the Thai version of
the Hindu epic Ramayana, is the leading classic on which Thai art and music are
based. The main theme remains the same in the Thai version, although the
Ramakien is about 25 percent longer than the original Hindu version. Modern
writing is more Western in style. Thailand has many women among its authors of
popular writing. Kukrit Pramoj is one of Thailand’s most famous novelists. In
addition to his career as a writer, he was Thailand’s prime minister in 1975.
JArt Among the most celebrated works of architecture in Thailand are the wats in
Bangkok. Thai sculpture, dating from the 14th century, is a mixture of Chinese,
Myanmar, Hindu, and Khmer influences and is best seen in the temples and
representations of Buddha. Thai religious paintings have been less well
preserved; paintings are rarely older than 150 years. Thailand is known for
producing beautiful silk textiles. KMusic and Dance Thai music is very intricate
and is a usual accompaniment of Thai drama. The instruments, primarily woodwind
and percussion, are usually grouped in five- or ten-piece ensembles. Musicians
sit on the floor to play, and generally play by ear. The dance in Thailand is
equally intricate, following or deriving from Indian dancing and involving a
series of gestures and swaying that interpret a story. Even the smallest
movements reflect important story threads, carefully woven by performers dressed
in elaborate costumes and headgear. IVECONOMY The cultivation, processing, and
export of agricultural products, especially rice, was traditionally the mainstay
of the Thai economy. Although Thailand has long been among the most prosperous
of the Asian nations, its dependence on a single crop rendered it exceedingly
vulnerable to fluctuations in the world price of rice and to variations in the
harvest. The government has diminished this vulnerability by instituting a
number of development programs aimed at diversifying the economy and by
promoting scientific methods of farming, particularly controlled flooding of the
rice fields, so that the rice harvest might remain stable even in years of scant
rainfall. Spurred largely by Japanese investment, Thailand industrialized
rapidly during the 1980s and early 1990s; however, the economy experienced a
downturn in the mid-1990s that worried both investors and the Thai people. The
estimated national budget in 1995 included revenue of $31.3 billion and
expenditure of $26.6 billion. In 1997 Thailand suffered an economic crisis when
it became clear that a number of the country’s financial institutions were near
bankruptcy. Many had acquired bad debts during the economic boom years of the
1980s and early 1990s. Investors lost confidence in the value of the baht (the
Thai currency), which began to fall sharply against the United States dollar. As
the crisis developed, many businesses failed, unemployment rose, and the
currencies and stock markets of other Southeast Asian nations were affected. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) provided an aid package of loans to help
Thailand weather the crisis. To obtain the loans, Thailand agreed to take steps
to stabilize its economy, including making budget cuts, raising taxes, and
closing unstable financial institutions. AAgriculture Thailand is one of the
world’s leading producers of rice, despite the fact that the yield per hectare
is low. In 1997 Thailand produced 21.8 million metric tons of rice, up from
about 11.3 million metric tons per year in the 1960s. The second most important
crop in value is rubber, which is raised mainly on plantations on the Malay
Peninsula. Thailand produced 2.3 million metric tons of natural rubber in 1997.
Other important crops included cassava (17.2 million metric tons), sugarcane
(60.0 million), maize (4.4 million), and fruits such as pineapples and coconuts
(6.9 million). Thailand is also a significant producer of kenaf, a fiber used in
making canvas. Livestock totaled 8.0 million cattle, 4.8 million buffalo, 4.0
million pigs, and 131 million poultry. BForestry and Fishing Forests cover 23
percent of Thailand’s total land area. The most valuable forest product is
hardwood. The timber harvest in 1995 totaled 39.3 million cu m (1.4 billion cu
ft), nearly all of which was burned for fuel. Thailand was a major exporter of
teak until a ban on uncontrolled logging was instituted in 1989, following
severe flooding as a result of deforestation. Fishing is rapidly growing in
importance to the Thai economy. In 1995 the annual catch included 3.3 million
metric tons of prawns, fish, and shellfish. In the early 1990s exports of ocean
products, particularly prawns, accounted for about 10 percent of export
earnings. CMining The development of extensive natural gas reserves has
decreased Thailand’s dependence on energy imports. Production in 1996 was 13.2
billion cu m (468 billion cu ft), 5 percent of the proven reserves. Gemstones,
particularly diamonds, are the principal mineral export of Thailand, producing
3.3 percent of export revenues. The country’s chief mineral products included
(with annual output in the early 1990s) lignite (14.5 million metric tons), zinc
ore (496,000), lead concentrates (65,500), tin (14,200), gypsum (7.2 million)
and iron ore (240,100). DManufacturing Thailand’s increasingly diversified
manufacturing sector is a central component of the nation’s economic expansion,
growing by 9.4 percent annually during the 1980s and early 1990s. Industry,
which includes manufacturing, construction, and mining, employs 14 percent of
the labor force. Food-processing industries, especially rice milling and sugar
refining; textile and clothing manufacture; and the electronics industry
predominate. Other important manufactured goods included cement (18 million
metric tons), motor vehicles (318,000 units), cigarettes (38.3 billion units),
and various chemicals and petroleum products. EEnergy In 1996 Thailand produced
82 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity, up from about 3 billion kilowatt-hours
in 1968. Generating plants fueled by hydrocarbons produced 91 of the
electricity. FCurrency and Banking The basic unit of currency of Thailand is the
baht, which is divided into 100 satang. In 1996 25.34 baht equaled U.S.$1.
After the onset of the 1997 economic crisis, the baht fell against the dollar by
as much as 25 percent before making a partial recovery in the first quarter of
1998. The Bank of Thailand, established in 1942, issues all currency. Thailand
also has many commercial bank branches, as well as several foreign banks.
GForeign Trade and Tourism In 1995 Thai exports were valued at $56.4 billion,
and imports were valued at $73.7 billion. Principal exports were agricultural
products, electronics, clothing and footwear, and rubber. Thailand’s primary
trading partners were Japan, the United States, Singapore, Germany, Hong Kong,
and South Korea. Tourism is Thailand’s chief source of foreign capital.
HTransportation The Thai railroad system, which totals 3870 km (2405 mi) of
track, is owned and operated by the state. Consisting of a network of lines
radiating from Bangkok, the system extends as far north as Chiang Mai, southward
to the frontier of Malaysia, eastward to Ubon Ratchathani, and northeastward
through Udon Thani to Nong Khai near the Laos border. Another line extends
northwestward to the Myanmar frontier. The Chao Phraya, navigable for about 80
km (about 50 mi) from its mouth, is an important inland waterway. The highway
system was improved in the 1970s and now includes 64,600 km (40,100 mi) of
roads. Thai Airways operates both domestic and international services. Don Muang
International Airport in northern metropolitan Bangkok is the largest airport.
In addition, there are more than 20 smaller airports located throughout the
country. Thailand is also planning a second international airport for the
Bangkok area; it is expected to be completed around 2000. The port of Bangkok,
one of the most modern in Southeast Asia, also serves neighboring landlocked
Laos. ICommunications In 1995 Thailand had 189 radio receivers and 189
television sets for every 1000 residents. Bangkok has 19 daily newspapers,
including 2 in English and 5 in Chinese, which have a combined circulation of
more than 2.9 million. Periodicals are published in Thai, English, and Chinese,
and several weekly papers serve the provinces. A press censorship law was
repealed in Thailand in 1991. JLabor In 1996 the labor force totaled 34.7
million. Agriculture engaged 64 percent of the workers. Organized labor is
represented by more than 530 unions with a combined total of nearly 300,000
members. VGOVERNMENT A revolution in 1932 transformed Thailand into a
constitutional monarchy after centuries of rule by absolute monarchs, but until
recently the country was largely controlled by the military. Although King
Phumiphon Adunyadet has little direct power, he exercises considerable influence
on political leaders. The nation’s 16th constitution took effect in 1997. It is
the first of Thailand’s constitutions to be drafted by a process involving
public debate, and the first to include a bill of rights guaranteeing equality
to all citizens. AExecutive Under the constitution the king is Thailand’s head
of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. A cabinet is headed by a
prime minister, who is the country’s chief executive official. BLegislature
Legislative power in Thailand is vested in the bicameral National Assembly,
which consists of a 500-member House of Representatives and a 245-member Senate.
Representatives are directly elected to four-year terms. Prior to the 1997
constitution, senators were appointed by the military; however, under the new
constitution they too will be directly elected to four-year terms. CJudiciary
Thai citizens are guaranteed due process and equal justice under the law. The
highest court is the Sarn Dika (Supreme Court), sitting in Bangkok, which is the
court of final appeal in all civil, criminal, and bankruptcy cases. A single
court of appeals (Sarn Uthorn) has appellate jurisdiction in all cases. Courts
of first instance include magistrates’ courts with limited civil and criminal
jurisdiction, provincial courts with unlimited jurisdiction, and civil and
criminal courts with exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok proper and Thon Buri.
Thailand’s constitution recognizes the independence of the judiciary. DLocal
Government Each of Thailand’s 76 provinces, called changwats, are under the
control of a governor appointed by the Ministry of Interior, except Bangkok
Metropolis, where the governor is elected by popular vote. District (amphur)
officials are also appointed. Larger towns are governed by elected and appointed
officials, and elected heads hold power at local levels. EHealth and Welfare The
Ministry of Public Health is charged with disaster relief, child welfare,
protection of the disabled and destitute, and development programs for northern
hill tribes. Special programs were initiated in the 1980s to assist refugees
from Vietnam and Cambodia in the east. The spread of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), is a
serious public health problem in Thailand. According to the Thai Ministry of
Public Health, the number of estimated HIV-infected people in Thailand was about
600,000 in 1994. Thailand’s anti-AIDS campaign, launched in 1991, was among the
first in Southeast Asia. The campaign includes AIDS awareness programs,
encouraging Thai to avoid brothels and use condoms. Clinics offer anonymous
testing for HIV infection. Thailand has one physician for every 4288 residents
and one hospital bed for every 586 people. FDefense Military service is
compulsory for two years for all able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 30.
In 1997 the armed forces included an army of 150,000 members, an air force of
43,000, and a navy of 73,000. VIHISTORY Present-day Thai are believed to be the
descendants of Tai-speaking people who lived in the Black River (S?ng D?)
valley of northern Vietnam, the extreme northeastern section of Laos, and
neighboring sections of China around the 5th to 8th century AD. These Tai people
may have spread into Thailand between the 7th to 13th century. By the end of the
13th century the Tai had formed a political entity and emerged as a nation
afterward known as the Thai. In 1350 a unified Thai kingdom was established by a
ruler known posthumously as Rama Tibodi. He founded the kingdom of Ayutthaya and
made the city of Ayutthaya his capital. Despite intermittent warfare with the
Cambodians and the Burmans, the Ayutthaya kingdom flourished during the next
four centuries, conquering Cambodia and the surviving states in the north.
Meanwhile, the Thai had come into contact that was not always friendly with
various European and Asian nations, including Portugal, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom, and China. ASovereignty Embattled In 1767, following a two-year
siege, Myanmar troops captured and destroyed Ayutthaya. The rule of Myanmar
overlords in Thailand was shortly terminated when General Pya Taksin proclaimed
himself king. When Taksin was executed by his ministers, the crown passed to
General Pya Chakri, founder of the present dynasty of Thai kings, who ruled from
1782 to 1809 as Rama I. The British and Thai governments concluded a commercial
treaty in 1826. Because of the rights and privileges obtained by this agreement,
British influence increased in Thailand throughout the remainder of the 19th
century. Owing to the statesmanship of two rulers, however, Thailand was spared
the fate of colonization that befell its neighbors. Interested in Western
science and civilization, King Mongkut (Rama IV), who reigned from 1851 to 1868,
invited many European advisers to assist him in modernizing the country. His
son, King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who reigned during the height of the onslaught
of European colonization, continued the vigorous modernization efforts of his
father and managed to maintain the country’s independence, albeit at
considerable cost in territorial concessions. For example, in 1893 Thailand
became embroiled in a boundary dispute with France, then the dominant power in
Cochin China, Annam, Tonkin, and Cambodia. The French dispatched warships to
Bangkok and forced the Thai to yield Cambodia and all of Laos east of the Mekong
River. Additional Thai territory, situated west of the Mekong, was acquired by
France in 1904 and 1907. Thailand gave up control over four states in the Malay
Peninsula to the United Kingdom in 1909. In exchange, the British relinquished
most of their extraterritorial rights in the rest of the kingdom. The Thai
government entered World War I (1914-1918) on the side of the Allies in July
1917. Thailand subsequently became a founding member of the League of Nations.
In June 1932, during the reign of King Prajadhipok, a small group of Thai
military and political leaders organized a successful revolt against the
government, until then an absolute monarchy. The insurgents, led by Pridi
Phanomyong and Colonel Phibun Songgram, proclaimed a constitutional monarchy on
June 27. Royalist opposition was finally overcome in October 1933. King
Prajadhipok, increasingly unhappy with the new government and in ill health,
abdicated in March 1935 in favor of his nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol. Thailand
invalidated all of its treaties with foreign nations in November 1936. Under the
provisions of new treaties negotiated in the following year, the government
obtained complete autonomy over its internal and external affairs. BWorld War II
With Japanese encouragement and support, Phibun’s government made demands on
France, beginning in 1940, for the return of the territory ceded in and after
1893. The dispute was settled, with Japanese mediation, in May 1941. By the
terms of the settlement, Thailand received about 54,000 sq km (about 21,000 sq
mi) of territory, including part of western Cambodia and all of Laos west of the
Mekong River. The relations between Japan and Thailand became increasingly
friendly thereafter. On December 8, 1941, a few hours after the Japanese attack
on Pearl Harbor, the Thai government granted Japan the right to move troops
across the country to the Malayan frontier. Thailand declared war on the United
States and the United Kingdom on January 25, 1942. Phibun’s pro-Japanese
government, however, was overthrown in July 1944; Pridi took over, and under his
leadership considerable sympathy for the Allied cause developed among the Thai
people. Thailand concluded a treaty with the United Kingdom and India in January
1946, renouncing, among other things, its claims to Malayan territory obtained
during the war. Diplomatic relations with the United States were resumed in the
same month. In November 1946 Thailand reached an agreement with France providing
for the return to France of the territory obtained in 1941. Thailand was
admitted to the United Nations (UN) on December 15, 1946, becoming the 55th
member. Meanwhile, on June 9, 1946, King Ananda Mahidol had died under
mysterious circumstances. A regency was appointed to rule during the minority of
his brother and successor, King Rama IX. CDomestic Instability On November 9,
1947, a military junta led by Phibun seized control of the government. Except
for a brief interlude early in 1948, Phibun thereafter retained control of the
government until 1957. His regime, essentially a dictatorship, based its foreign
policy on maintaining close relations with the United States and the United
Kingdom. King Rama IX assumed the throne on May 5, 1950. After the outbreak of
the Korean War in June 1950, Thailand assigned approximately 4000 men to the UN
forces. On November 29, 1951, a group of army officers seized control of the
government in a bloodless coup d’?tat and reestablished the authoritarian
constitution of 1932, with some changes. Phibun was retained as premier.
Meanwhile, a Free Thai movement, supported by the Chinese Communists and
nominally headed by Pridi, had been formed in China. Thai representatives took
part in the Geneva Conference of April 1954, which temporarily ended the war in
Indochina. In September 1954, Thailand was a founding member and Bangkok became
the headquarters of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). In September
1957, Phibun’s government was overthrown by a military coup d’?tat led by
Marshall Sarit Thanarat, commander in chief of the Thai armed forces. A
coalition government was formed in January 1958 under the premiership of
Lieutenant General Thanom Kittikachorn. Another coup in October 1958, again
headed by Sarit, overthrew the Thanom government. The constitution was
suspended, a state of martial law was proclaimed, and all political parties were
banned. In the early 1960s the government showed increasing concern over a
rapidly growing Communist guerrilla movement in the north. The increase in
terrorist attacks was one of the major problems faced by Thanom, who became
prime minister again on Sarit’s death in December 1963. The new government was
also concerned about the deteriorating position of the pro-Western government in
neighboring Laos and about the Vietnam War (1959-1975). DStruggle for Democracy
On the political front, the government took gradual steps toward the restoration
of political rights suspended in 1958. Elections to municipal councils were held
for the first time in a decade in December 1967. A permanent constitution was
promulgated in June 1968. Parliamentary elections were held in February 1969, in
which the United Thai People’s Party won a plurality of 75 seats in the house of
representatives. The largest opposition group, the Democratic Party, won 56
seats. Beginning about 1969, the United States changed its role in Southeast
Asia by gradually withdrawing its forces from Vietnam and by seeking friendly
relations with China. These developments caused Thailand to establish a more
flexible foreign policy, especially toward China and North Vietnam. At the same
time, Thailand continued to face guerrilla activities in the north and along the
border with Malaysia. The U.S. withdrawal from Southeast Asia had an adverse
effect on the Thai economy. The declining economy and guerrilla activities were
given as reasons for the establishment of a military government in November
1971. The military, led by General Thanom, abolished the constitution and
dissolved parliament. In December 1972 a new constitution was proclaimed. In
1973 a series of student-led demonstrations against the military government
resulted in Thanom’s resignation in October and the appointment of a civilian
cabinet. In late 1974 a new constitution was approved, and a freely elected
government was formed in early 1975. Stability, however, remained elusive, and
new elections in April 1976 made little difference. In September of that year
the return of former Prime Minister Thanom from exile in Singapore led to bloody
battles in Bangkok between leftist students and his right-wing supporters. In
early October, as disorder was spreading, a military group led by Admiral Sa-ngad
Chaloryu seized control of the country and installed a conservative government.
A year later, however, that government also was brought down by Sa-ngad and his
group. Sa-ngad instructed a new cabinet to try to bridge the divisions of Thai
society and improve relations with the neighboring Communist regimes. Yet
another constitution was promulgated in December 1978, and in April 1979
elections were held for a new House of Representatives. The military-installed
government, however, remained in power until March 1980, when it was replaced by
a new cabinet, headed by General Prem Tinsulanonda. Elections in 1983 left
General Prem as head of a new coalition government. He dissolved the National
Assembly in 1986 and called new elections. His party won, without a majority,
and he again formed a coalition government. After elections in July 1988,
Chatichai Choonhavan became prime minister. A military junta ousted him in
February 1991 and installed an interim civilian government. After pro-military
parties won the elections of March 1992, demonstrations in Bangkok calling for
democratic reforms were violently suppressed. New elections in September
resulted in another coalition government, with a veteran politician, Chuan
Leekpai, as prime minister. In February 1995 the government passed a sweeping
package that amended almost all the articles of the 1991 constitution. The
prodemocracy changes included lowering the voting age from 20 to 18 years and
changing the number of representatives from a fixed number to one based on
population. In addition, Thai citizens were guaranteed due process and equal
justice under the law. In May 1995 the Chuan Leekpai government collap
